Лексические средства научного стиля

Учебно-методическое пособие

Направление подготовки:
«Педагогическое образование» (бакалавриат);
профиль подготовки:
«Олигофренопедагогика», «Логопедия»,
«Специальная психология»

САМАРА
2013

УДК 378+811.111.1/37:159.922(076)
ББК 74.58+81.2(англ.) /372+88
Ос 72

Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета
Поволжской государственной социально-гуманитарной академии

Составители: Л.Е.Дичинская, Л.Ю.Каплина

Рецензенты: Л.В.Вершинина, доктор педагогических наук, профессор, заведующая кафедрой иностранных языков (Поволжская государственная социально-гуманитарная академия);
А.Л.Кюрегян, кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры инострнных языков (Самарский государственный технический университет)

Основы письменной коммуникации в профессиональной деятельности в иноязычной среде. Английский я зык: Учебно-методическое пособие. Направление подготовки «Педагогическое образование» (бакалавриат); профиль подготовки «Олигофренопедагогика», «Логопедия», «Специальная психология» / Дичинская Л.Е., Каплина Л.Ю. – Самара: ПГСГА, 2013. – 76 с.

Учебно-методическое пособие направлено на формирование у студентов умения создавать вторичные тексты на материале иноязычных научных и научно-публицисти-ческих текстов, а также на овладение базовой терминологией по профилю подготовки. Издание содержит теоретические основы компрессии текста, практические рекомендации по написанию аннотации, резюме и рецензии, справочный материал.

УДК 378+811.111.1/37:159.922(076)
ББК 74.58+81.2(англ.) /372+88
Ос 72

© Поволжская государственная социально-гуманитарная академия, 2013

© Дичинская Л.Е., Каплина Л.Ю. (сост.), 2013

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Курс «Основы письменной коммуникации в профессиональной деятельности в иноязычной среде» направлен на расширение и углубление знаний, умений, навыков и компетенций предмета базовой части дисциплины «Иностранный язык» и изучение основ продуктивной письменной речи в профессиональной сфере деятельности с учетом профиля педагогического образования.

Курс рассчитан на 32 часа аудиторных занятий и 40 часов самостоятельной работы студентов и охватывает четвертый семестр обучения.

Для успешного освоения дисциплины студент должен знать грамматический строй иностранного языка, нормы письменной речи, нормы устной коммуникации; должен уметь пользоваться словарями (общими и терминологическими), переводить тексты профессионального содержания (общепедагогические) на русский язык, читать и понимать тексты по темам повседневной жизни, образования в стране изучаемого языка; должен владеть навыками работы с информацией из зарубежных источников, навыками и умениями говорения, аудирования и письма и чтения на иностранном языке.

Процесс изучения дисциплины направлен на формирование способности получать и оценивать информацию в области профессиональной деятельности из зарубежных источников; способности к подготовке и редактированию текстов профессионального и социально значимого содержания, для чего необходимо

знать:

– основные методы, способы и средства получения и переработки информации по профилю подготовки;

– структурные характеристики основных видов вторичных текстов (аннотаций, резюме, рецензий и др.);

– основные способы компрессии текстов;

– стилистические, лексические, морфологические и синтаксические основы и нормы письменной речи изучаемого иностранного языка;

– стилистические, лексические, морфологические и синтаксические основы и нормы профессиональной письменной речи по профилю подготовки;

– особенности письменного жанра и виды письменных текстов;

– правила орфографии и пунктуации, принятые в иностранном языке;

уметь:

– составлять рецензии на научный текст или статью по профилю подготовки;

– составлять аннотации научного текста или статьи по профилю подготовки;

– составлять резюме научного текста или статьи по профилю подготовки;

– вести записи основных мыслей и фактов (из аутентичных источников по профилю подготовки);

– подбирать и классифицировать тематический материал, выделять ключевую информацию, логично и последовательно ее организовывать, грамотно оформлять мысли, письменно интерпретировать прочитанное в ходе компрессии текста-оригинала;

– прогнозировать тематическую направленность текста по заголовку или ключевым словам;

– членить текст на законченные смысловые части, устанавливать смысловые отношения между отдельными частями текста;

– обобщать излагаемые в тексте факты;

владеть:

– умениями использовать структурированные высказывания в процессе создания вторичных текстов (введение темы, приведение примеров, перечисление, выражение мнения, подчеркивание основных мыслей, подведение итогов, переход к другой теме, запрос мнения собеседника, и т.д.);

– умениями использовать клишированные выражения, вводящие различные части вторичного текста;

– умениями перефразировать;

– умениями применять принятую в данной области знаний терминологию;

– умениями построения вторичных текстов (рецензий, аннотаций, резюме) на основе текста-оригинала по профилю подготовки;

– навыками поиска и обзора литературы и электронных источников по проблеме.

В процессе обучения студенты познакомятся с лексико-грамматическими и стилистическими характеристиками научного стиля, научатся проводить сопоставительный анализ особенностей указанных выше видов речевых произведений, освоят профессиональную лексику, овладеют умениями и навыками создания вторичных текстов (рецензий, аннотаций, резюме).

В процессе самостоятельной работы студенты будут составлять аннотации и резюме к научным текстам, подбирать и рецензировать научные статьи по профилю подготовки. Параллельно студенты будут работать над составлением толкового терминологического словаря по профилю подготовки.

Данное пособие призвано обеспечить успешное освоение курса «Основы письменной коммуникации в профессиональной деятельности в иноязычной среде». Пособие состоит из введения, теоретической части, практической части, приложений, списка литературы.

В теоретической части в доступной форме на русском языке изложены особенности научного стиля (лексические, фразеологические, морфологические и синтаксические средства научного стиля; разновидности и жанры научного стиля; компрессия научного текста); особенности написания аннотации, резюме и рецензии; примеры аннотации, резюме и рецензии на материале научной статьи по педагогике.

В практической части представлены 15 научных текстов и 3 научные статьи по профилю подготовки, которые сопровождаются упражнениями, направленными на обучение рациональной работе с источниками, умению подбирать и классифицировать тематический материал, выделять ключевую информацию, логично и последовательно ее организовывать, грамотно оформлять мысли, письменно интерпретировать прочитанное в ходе компрессии текста-оригинала.

Приложения представлены на английском языке и включают список клише, широко применяемых во вторичных текстах; образцы аннотации и резюме научного текста по направлению подготовки, рецензии на научную статью (на иностранном языке); правила орфографии и пунктуации соответствующего языка.

Часть 1. ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАУЧНОГО СТИЛЯ:
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ И ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА,
РАЗНОВИДНОСТИ И ЖАНРЫ

Особенности научного стиля

Научный стиль – функционально-стилевая разновидность литературного языка, которая обслуживает разнообразные отрасли науки (точные науки, естественные, гуманитарные и др.), область техники и производства и реализуется в жанрах монографии, научной статьи, диссертации, реферата, тезисов, научного доклада, лекции, сообщения на научные темы, рецензии, а также в учебной и научно-технической литературе и т.д. Важнейшая задача научного стиля речи – объяснить причины явлений, сообщить, описать существенные признаки, свойства предмета научного познания.

Научный стиль принадлежит к числу книжных стилей литературного языка, обладающих общими условиями функционирования и схожими языковыми особенностями, среди которых: предварительное обдумывание высказывания, монологический характер речи, строгий отбор языковых средств, стремление к нормированности речи. Основной формой реализации научного стиля является письменная речь, хотя с повышением роли науки в различных сферах деятельности, расширением научных контактов, развитием средств массовой коммуникации возрастает роль и устной формы общения с использованием научного стиля.

Главной коммуникативной задачей общения в научной сфере является выражение научных понятий и умозаключений. Мышление в этой сфере деятельности носит обобщенный, абстрагированный, логический характер. Этим обусловлены такие специфические черты научного стиля, как отвлеченность, обобщенность, подчеркнутая логичность изложения, и вторичные, более частные, стилевые черты: смысловая точность (однозначность выражения мысли), информативная насыщенность, объективность изложения, отсутствие образности и эмоциональности. Обобщенность и отвлеченность языка научной прозы диктуются спецификой научного мышления. Наука трактует о понятиях, выражает абстрактную мысль, поэтому язык ее лишен конкретности. В этом отношении он противопоставлен языку художественной литературы.

Образцы компрессии текстов

Аннотация статьи
«Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

В данной статье рассматриваются особенности самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников как универсального учебного действия, дается уточненное
определение понятия «самоконтроль в учебной деятельности младших школьников» и уточненный операционный состав действия самоконтроля. Автор устанавливает соотношение между формами самоконтроля и способами учебной деятельности. В статье определяются объекты для самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников.

Резюме статьи
«Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

Статья Н. «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» посвящена проблеме формирования самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников.

Отмечая плодотворность научных исследований по проблеме формирования самоконтроля в данной возрастной группе, автор указывает, что ФГОС начального общего образования требует, чтобы самоконтроль был сформирован как универсальное учебное действие, которое понимается как совокупность способов действия учащегося, обеспечивающих его способность к самостоятельному усвоению новых знаний и умений, включая организацию этого процесса.

Автор придерживается следующей классификации видов самоконтроля: 1) контроль в форме произвольного внимания, используемый при сопоставлении действия с заданным образцом; 2) упреждающий контроль, используемый при отсутствии образца и заключающийся в соотнесении действия с условиями его выполнения и ожидаемыми результатами; 3) рефлексивный самоконтроль, используемый в случае перестройки способа действия или его создания и представляющий собой систему проб, состоящих в примеривании изменяющегося способа действия к новым условиям его выполнения.

Автор указывает, что в структуре учебной деятельности выделяют контроль соответствия полученного результата требуемому и контроль способов получения этого результата. При этом, для предметных способов проработки учебного материала логично использовать упреждающий самоконтроль и самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания; для индивидуальных способов проработки учебного материала и способов организации учения – рефлексивный самоконтроль и самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания. В качестве эталонов для самоконтроля результатов учебной деятельности предлагаются способ осуществления учебной деятельности, характеристики уровней сформированности умений и навыков, конкретный результат выполнения учебного задания.

Для развития самоконтроля автор предлагает использовать дневник самоконтроля, включающий элементы портфолио (работы учащихся), памятки, требования по усвоению учебного материала, критерии оценок, а также листы самооценок своих достижений и самого процесса учения.

Рассматривая самоконтроль как действие, автор уточняет его операционный состав:

1) формулировка цели контроля; 2) определение основных линий, по которым возможен и целесообразен контроль; 3) определение показателей по каждой из намеченных линий, которые могут быть использованы в процессе выполнения действий и которые окажутся пригодными для проверки результатов; 4) фактическая оценка выполняемого или выполненного действия по всем линиям и на основе всех намеченных показателей; 5) оценка результатов действия с точки зрения объективных и субъективных возможностей его выполнения; 6) определение, на основе предшествующей оценки, перспектив получения более высоких результатов; 7) принятие решения о характере коррекции; 8) внесение корректив; 9) повторная фактическая оценка.

Автор приходит к заключению о том, что под самоконтролем целесообразно понимать действие, направленное на достижение максимального соответствия способа учения, а также способа решения познавательной или практической задачи в учебной деятельности и его результата заданному эталону (самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания), а при его отсутствии цели деятельности (упреждающий и рефлексивный самоконтроль) на основе сличения, оценки и коррекции. Специфика этого действия заключается в том, что оно непосредственно не связано с предметным материалом, оно регулирует деятельность за счет соотнесения результата и процесса осуществления деятельности с эталоном или условиями его выполнения в случае отсутствия эталона или его несоответствия целям и условиям выполнения деятельности. Основное назначение контрольного действия заключается в том, чтобы привести свою деятельность в соответствие с эталоном-образцом ее осуществления, а в случае отсутствия образца – с целями и условиями ее осуществления.

Автор подчеркивает, что самоконтроль младших школьников развивается в учебной деятельности, одновременно обеспечивая усвоение ее структуры. Педагогическое управление развитием самоконтроля должно быть организовано с учетом возрастных особенностей детей, требований ФГОС и развивающего потенциала самой учебной деятельности.

Рецензия на статью
«Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

В статье «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» Н. рассматривает содержание понятия «самоконтроль в учебной деятельности младших школьников» в условиях перехода на новые образовательные стандарты, в которых целью и основным результатом образования признается развитие личности ребенка за счет усвоения универсальных учебных действий, обеспечивающих его способность к самообразованию.

Актуальность темы, рассматриваемой автором статьи, не вызывает сомнения, так как изменение целей начального общего образования предполагает умение младших школьников осуществлять самоконтроль за процессом усвоения и применения универсальных учебных действий, что расширяет рамки области применения самоконтроля в учебной деятельности на начальном этапе обучения. Более того, включение самоконтроля в состав универсальных учебных действий дает возможность рассмотреть это понятие в рамках теории деятельности.

Н. обосновывает выбор классификации типов самоконтроля на основании наличия или отсутствия эталона для сличения: самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания, упреждающий самоконтроль и рефлексивный самоконтроль. Далее автор устанавливает соответствие между типами самоконтроля и способами учебной работы (специфическими предметными способами, индивидуальными способами и способами организации учения), а также результатами, достигаемыми в процессе обучения (способом учения, общим способом решения задач данного класса и результатом выполнения конкретного задания на учебном материале). Интерес представляет определение роли и места самоконтроля и процессе освоения нового материала.

Автор предлагает использовать специальные средства для фиксации результатов учебной деятельности, что позволяет младшим школьникам осуществлять мониторинг своей учебной деятельности и развивает у них контрольно-оценочные умения.

Отдельного внимания заслуживает подход автора к понятию самоконтроля с точки зрения теории деятельности и уточненный операционный состав действия самоконтроля.

Статья Н. «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» соответствует требованиям, предъявляемым к работам данного типа. Статья рекомендована к публикации.

Часть 2. ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

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Text 3. Fingerspelling

The American manual alphabet consists of 26 distinct hand configurations that represent the letters of the alphabet.

Fingerspelling is the rapid execution of a series of these configurations to communicate words visually. As such, it is more a representation of written language than of spoken language because it excludes the phonological alterations and prosodic aspects of speech. Fingerspelling skills include the hand configurations, the characteristic positioning of the hand in a fixed central location, and the set of possible transition movements from one configuration to the next.

Dactylology (the study or use of the manual alphabet) has attributed the origin of fingerspelling to medieval monks who used it to communicate without breaking their vows of silence. A Spanish Benedictine monk, Pedro Ponce de Leon, is thought to have been the first person to use fingerspelling to instruct the deaf. His work was built on by another Spaniard, Juan Martin Pablo Bonet, who in 1620 published the first book on educating the deaf. This book included a diagram of a manual alphabet that is remarkably similar to the one used in the United States today. It is believed that this alphabet was later brought to France and used to improve the alphabet of Abbé Charles de l’Epée, founder of the first French public school for the deaf in the eighteenth century. It was de l’Epée’s methods and alphabet that were later imported to the United States by Laurent Clerc and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. This alphabet, further modified and evolved, has become the American manual alphabet.

There are numerous manual alphabets in use in different countries around the world. The American manual alphabet, however, with only two exceptions (t and d), was adopted by the Fourth Congress of the World Federation of the Deaf in 1963 as the international hand alphabet. This was in part because English and French (which uses a very similar system) are the official languages of the federation, and in part because the American alphabet was already in use in many countries.

Fingerspelling is generally used as an adjunct to sign language, especially to render proper nouns, technological terms for which no signs exist, and slang. To the uninitiated, fingerspelling seems an indistinguishable part of sign language.

There are, however, several differences between signing and fingerspelling. Signs usually use one or two distinct hand configurations, while in fingerspelling there are as many configurations as there are letters in the word. Fingerspelling is done in a much smaller space than signing, with the hand remaining in a nearly fixed position as only the configuration changes. Palm orientation in fingerspelling is restricted almost exclusively to a palm out position, in contrast to signing, in which there is no such restriction. Another important difference is that while signing evolved as a means of communication in the deaf community, fingerspelling originated as an instructional tool.

Although fingerspelling is used primarily as a supplement to sign language, a method of manual communication exists that relies exclusively on the use of fingerspelling.

This is known as the Rochester Method, after the Rochester School for the Deaf where the superintendent of the school, Zenas Westervelt, initiated its use in 1878. The method gradually fell into disuse after Westervelt’s death in 1912, and though proponents of it still exist, it is seldom used today, not even in the school for which it was named.

American deaf people are noted for more frequent use, and more rapid execution, of fingerspelling than other sign communities throughout the world. This may in part be responsible for the phenomenon known as loan signs. These are signs that originated as fingerspelled words, but in which the number of hand configurations has been reduced to two. In addition, other features such as palm orientation and movement have been added so that a phonologically well- formed sign is produced.

(Source: Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITION
Cecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors, 2007)

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Text 4. Genius

The original conception of genius was of a deity that would reside within an individual and have a profound influence on the development of his or her mental powers and spiritual growth. Recently the concept of genius has been subsumed within psychology and philosophy. Galton (1869) developed a quantitative concept of genius as an innate or inherited ability, and Lombroso (1891) conceived of genius as a manifestation of abnormal psychology as akin to madness. Hirsch (1931) even proposed that the genius should be viewed as a separate psychological species.

Historically, the term genius has been used synonymously with the term giftedness as measured by standardized tests of intelligence. In the early stages of Terman’s research, Terman equated giftedness with high IQ, and expressed the view on many occasions that from high IQ children “and no where else, our geniuses in every line are recruited” (Terman, 1924). Also, in approaching his monumental longitudinal study of gifted children, Terman (1925) used the term gifted, but he nevertheless titled the entire series of books that resulted Genetic Studies of Genius.

Today, researchers note the differences observed between giftedness and genius, and thus make a conceptual distinction between the two constructs. Also, the term “genius” is used less frequently than it was. When it is used, it often references extremely high levels of adult creativity and accomplishment. Contemporary giftedness researchers incorporate the distinction between childhood giftedness and real world genius into their theories. Renzulli (2005) distinguishes between “schoolhouse giftedness” (which is most important during the grade school years) and “creative-productive giftedness” (which is most important for high levels of adult, real world achievement). Tannenbaum (1986) notes the distinction between those who are consumers of knowledge and those who are the producers of knowledge. Gagné (2005) makes the distinction between giftedness (which can be conceptualized as childhood potential) and talent (which may be conceptualized as adulthood achievement). Contemporary giftedness researchers are interested in determining the factors that link gifted potential to adult eminence.

Research on the origins and nurturance of genius has often taken the form of studies of eminent people or very high achievers, an approach pioneered by Galton (1869).

In Volume 2 of Genetic Studies of Genius (1926), Catherine Cox and others (including Lewis Terman) studied the early mental traits of 300 geniuses, and estimated their IQs.

The biographical method continues today, with detailed analyses of unambiguously defined geniuses who are no longer living. There has been an increasing recognition among biographical researchers as to the importance of family, schooling, hard work, and other variables in determining giftedness. Howe (1999b) provides case studies suggesting the important influence of a stimulating and intellectual background in the development of genius. Gardner’s (1993) analysis of seven eminent creators demonstrates that creators put enormous amounts of time and energy into their work. Taking a more quantitative approach, Simonton (1994) has attempted to identify environmental and personal trends that have affected the quality and quantity of a large number of famous creators.

Research by Bloom (1985), however, focused on living subjects who have achieved world recognition. The research by Bloom and his predecessors agree in the finding that genius, giftedness, special talent, and high ability often appear as precocious behavior; for instance, accomplishments in youth that far exceed normal achievements. However, Howe (1999a) notes case studies of individuals who were not particularly precocious while younger, but nonetheless grew up to be highly eminent creators. The reasons why childhood and adulthood are not always linked is an ongoing topic of interest among scholars.

(Source: Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITION
Cecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors, 2007)

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Text 8. Speech Therapy

Speech therapy includes all efforts to ameliorate disordered speech. Treatment activities include attempts to improve the speech of persons who have never spoken normally (habilitation) as well as to improve the speech of persons who formerly had normal speech (rehabilitation). A variety of treatment approaches are used, depending on the speaker’s age, speech disorder, and the professional training and experience of the speech pathologist. Speech therapy usually includes teaching a person with a speech disorder to speak differently. Concerning adults and older children, however, therapy may consist of play activities during which treatment is indirect.

Although many research investigations have been conducted into the nature and treatment of speech (and language) disorders, much remains unknown. Therapy remains, therefore, often more of an art than a science.

The speech pathologist must often rely more on intuition and experience than on research results. Often, no attempt is made to determine the cause of the speech disorder because, in most cases, the cause(s) cannot be found. Although some speech disorders can be completely cured so that no traces of the original behavior remain, some speech disorders cannot be completely eradicated. For instance, some children and adults who stutter will continue to have vestiges of stuttering despite successful speech therapy.

Clients receive therapy in group and /or individual sessions, and therapy may be short-term (a few sessions) or long- term (several years), depending on the nature and severity of the disorder. The length and frequency of therapy sessions also depend on a variety of factors. (The terms client, patient, and student are all variously used to refer to the person being treated for a speech disorder, depending on the treatment setting).

Speech-language pathologists typically assess clients before therapy actually begins, although a period of diagnostic therapy may also be used to help determine the nature of the disorder. Sometimes clients are referred to other professionals by the speech- language pathologist (e.g., audiologists, dentists, physicians).

(Source: Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITION
Cecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors, 2007)

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Text 10. Signs of Autism

Children with autism have strong emotions, and it can be tough for them to know how to let out their feelings appropriately.

Children with ASD may fail to respond to their names and often avoid eye contact with other people. They have difficulty interpreting what others are thinking or feeling because they can’t understand social cues, such as tone of voice or facial expressions, and don’t watch other people’s faces for clues about appropriate behavior. They lack empathy.

Children with autism face enormous struggles when attempting to interact with their typically developing peers. More children are educated in integrated settings; however, play skills usually need to be explicitly taught, and play environments must be carefully prepared to support effective social interactions.

Children with autism often behave in unusual ways. Their activities are limited, and they may become very upset if there is some change in their environment or daily routine. For example, some may have temper tantrums if a piece of furniture in their room is moved or if they are put at a different place at the dinner table.

Autistic children are often withdrawn and quiet, and usually have a very difficult time expressing themselves, so much so that they rarely try. It was long believed that autism was a form of mental retardation, but this is not the case. Autistic children are often extremely bright. Autism treatment helps the kid to again try to express themselves and encourage to get out of isolation.

In both children and adults, the signs and symptoms of the autism spectrum disorders include problems with social skills, speech and language, and restricted activities and interests. However, there are enormous differences when it comes to the severity of the symptoms, their combinations, and the patterns of behavior.

Autistic children benefit the most from programming that introduces new materials as quickly as the child's patience and attention span will allow. Pictures may be employed in order to visually show children the action or explanation for a word.

Parents of children with autism - particularly those with newly diagnosed children - face a dizzying array of options that can be absolutely overwhelming. Parents of children with autism deserve all of the information needed to consider possible treatments carefully and to make the most informed decision for their child.

Most children with autism either become overwhelmed by too much sensory stimulation, or get frustrated because they crave it. Learn to read your child's needs and accommodate their environment accordingly. For instance, if your child is screaming and blocking his or her ears, create a quiet environment.

(Source: Education Articles, Special Education. 2011)

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Text 12. School Violence

During the past decade, a number of highly publicized incidents of school violence in West Paducah, Kentucky, Jonesboro, Arkansas, Springfield, Oregon, Littleton, Colorado, and Red Lake, Minnesota, occurred, in which guns have been brought into schools and students and teachers have been killed. These incidents have left many parents, teachers, and students feeling vulnerable and concerned about school safety. According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention of the U.S. Department of Justice, 12 percent of students reported carrying weapons to school for protection, 28 percent sometimes or never felt safe while at school, and 11 percent have stayed home from school or cut classes because of the fear of violence (Yell & Rozalski, 2000). Concern about the danger of weapons on school campuses has resulted in establishing zero- tolerance disciplinary policies associated with bringing weapons to school and with acts of violence. These guidelines grew out of the drug enforcement policies of the 1980s (Morrison & D’Incau, 1997). Critics of zero- tolerance policy recommend the use of a proactive approach to violence prevention instead of the current focus on punishment of offenders. Although advocates who propose the use of proactive approaches recognize a need for zero- tolerance policy for offenders who bring weapons into the schools, they stress the need to adopt other prevention programs simultaneously. Such prevention strategies may involve a three- tiered model (primary, secondary, and tertiary), with the intensity of prevention and intervention strategies increasing at each level (Dwyer, Osher, & Hoffman, 2000).

At the primary prevention level, efforts to decrease violence and aggression should target all students schoolwide and should be implemented beginning in early elementary school. One of the first steps in implementing a primary prevention program is to address the physical condition of the school building (Dwyer et al., 2000). Physical conditions associated with safety can be addressed by supervising access to the building and grounds, minimizing time in hallways, providing supervision during transition times, and working with local law enforcement to ensure that routes to and from school are safe (Dwyer et al., 2000). Effective instruction of academic material is another crucial component to any violence prevention program (Scott, Nelson, & Liaupsin, 2001). Adequate curriculum contributes to a decrease in physical, relational, and verbal aggression. For example, identification and interventions for students with learning difficulties decreases the likelihood that such students will engage in disruptive behaviors. Teaching social skills to all members of a school community is another primary prevention effort. The creation of a sense of belonging in a school community decreases risks of violence and aggression (Perry, 1999). The creation of a sense of belonging requires teachers to be trained and encouraged to show warmth and support to students, and for students to display cooperation and prosocial values. In addition, teachers should be trained to supplement strategies that decrease disruptive behaviors in the classroom, so that such behaviors do not escalate into classroom and school crises (Skiba & Peterson, 2000). Students should be taught specific social skills that involve the inclusion of others, ethical values such as fairness, respect, caring, responsibility, and citizenship, as well as conflict resolution and peer mediation skills (Perry, 1999).

At the secondary level of violence prevention, programs should be targeted toward students who are at risk for violent and antisocial behavior. At- risk students are identified through the implementation of early screening measures. Multiple gating approaches (i.e., the use of multiple screening techniques to minimize false positives and negatives) may be used to identify at- risk students (Sprague & Walker, 2000). The three gates to be screened are: teacher nominations and referrals of students exhibiting antisocial behaviors; teacher ratings of student academic and behavior skills; and a search of school, public safety, and corrections records. All school faculty members should be taught the early warning signs for violent and antisocial behavior (Dwyer et al., 2000). Students who are troubled often exhibit multiple early warning signs that, if recognized early, can help school faculty identify maladaptive behaviors and immediately design and implement interventions for them. Some warning signs include social withdrawal, low school interest and academic performance, expression of violence in writing and drawings, bullying, a history of discipline problems, and excessive anger. After a student has been identified as being at risk for violent and antisocial behavior, comprehensive early interventions that involve both school and family need to be immediately implemented. The display of potential antisocial behaviors warrants interventions designed to target them. Professionals need to be knowledgeable of empirically supported interventions for antisocial behavior. Finally, adequate early response programs should involve a tertiary tier of interventions, which are implemented when students engage in violent and antisocial behavior. All schools should have a program in place that can be implemented quickly and effectively during a time of crisis (Dwyer et al., 2000). Tertiary levels of early response should also include a zero- tolerance policy, especially when violent behavior and the risk for student safety are unable to be prevented or controlled with the aforementioned methods.

(Source: Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITION
Cecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors, 2007)

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Article 1. Overcorrection

Ernest l. Pancsofar
University of Connecticut

Abstract

Overcorrection refers to a punishment procedure and includes the systematic application of prescribed strategies to decrease the future occurrence of targeted behaviors. An overcorrection package may include verbal reprimands, time- out from positive reinforcement, short verbal instructions, and graduated guidance. The two major procedures of overcorrection are restitution and positive practice. Restitution means restoring the environment or oneself to a state that is vastly improved relative to the prior condition.

Keywords overcorrection, behavior, misbehavior.

Positive practice involves the repeated practice of certain forms of behaviors relevant to the content in which the behavior occurred (Hobbs, 1985). Foxx (1982) describes three characteristics of overcorrection acts, including the existence of a direct relationship to the student’s misbehavior; implementation immediately following the misbehavior; and rapid administration of overcorrection acts. While administering overcorrection acts, the teacher employs a full or partial graduated guidance form of assistance followed by a shadowing procedure as the program develops. In a full graduated guidance technique, the teacher maintains full contact with the student’s hands. In partial graduated guidance, the teacher uses a thumb and forefinger to gently guide the movements of the student.

Eventually, the teacher shadows the student by placing a hand in close proximity to the student’s hand and initiating contact only when the student fails to complete the movements of the overcorrection act. A sample behavior that could result in an overcorrection consequence is excessive spillage of food during meals. A simple, correction procedure would require the student to clean only the immediate area of the spillage. Overcorrection would extend this requirement to cleaning additional areas in the cafeteria as well. Additionally, the teacher may require the student to overly clean designated areas even though these areas may not need attention. In a review of behaviors that have been targeted for overcorrection acts, Ferretti and Cavalier (1983) summarized the reported effectiveness with eating skills, toileting skills, aggressive- disruptive behaviors, stereotype behaviors, and self-injurious behaviors. In these research reports, the individual components of each overcorrection package of strategies were not evaluated.

However, general observations of the effectiveness of overcorrection procedures were favorable. Overcorrection acts have been successfully implemented with individuals with mental retardation, autism, emotional and / or behavioral disorders (Tyson & Spooner, 1991). Caution must be exercised during the formulation and implementation of the components of an overcorrection package. A minimum intensity level of intrusiveness should be maintained that affects the desired behavioral reduction of the targeted behavior. From a practical standpoint, overcorrection requires the investment of close teacher to student contact throughout the implementation of the procedures. Additionally, the physical strength of a strong student must be considered relative to a teacher’s ability to guide the movements of the overcorrection acts. A different reductive procedure may be necessary if the teacher is unable to complete the required full graduated guidance. The appeal of overcorrection is the educative component of teaching the student a correct way of behaving to replace the targeted negative behavior. The implementation of aversive consequences that resemble overcorrection acts, but fail to include this educative component, are mislabeled as overcorrection. Careful monitoring of all aspects of this reductive procedure needs to be included to provide adequate safeguards against potentially abusive situations. As a punishment alternative, overcorrection requires additional investigations to substantiate previous claims of rapid reduction of undesirable behaviors.

References

Axelrod, S., Brantner, J.P., & Meddock, T.D. (1978). Overcorrection: A review and critical analysis // Journal of Special Education, 12, 367–391.

Ferretti, R.P., & Cavalier, A.R. (1983). A critical assessment of overcorrection procedures with mentally retarded persons // J.L.

Matson & F.Andrasik (Eds.), Treatment issues and innovations in mental retardation (pp. 241–301). New York: Plenum.

Foxx, R.M. (1982). Decreasing behaviors of severely retarded and autistic persons (pp. 91–111). Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Hobbs, S.A. (1985). Overcorrection. In A. S. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Dictionary of behavior therapy techniques (pp. 158–160). New York: Pergamon.

Kazdin, A.E. (1984). Behavior modifi cation in applied settings (3^rd ed.) (pp. 136–139).

Homewood, IL: Dorsey. Ollendick, T.H., & Matson, J.L. (1978). Overcorrection: An overview. Behavior Therapy. 9, 830–842.

Tyson, M.E., & Spooner, F. (1991). A retrospective evaluation of behavioral programming in an institutional setting // Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 26 (2), 179–189.

Ernest L. Pancsofar (University of Connecticut)

Source: Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITION
Cecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors, 2007.

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Abstract

Special education is a field addressing many challenges, one of them being working with second language learners. Today, many children across the United States come from countries and homes where English is not spoken orused as a language in which concepts are discussed. If, as projections suggest, 10 percent to 20 percent of any given population has some or several disabilities, then special education serves a number of these children.

Keywords articulation, vocabulary, learners.

For many such students, English is their second language. This condition currently presents challenges to educators and service providers, impacting the outcomes of evaluations and interventions (Ortiz, 1997). Unlike a child brought up in an English- only environment, the learner of English as a second language shows developmental lags in articulation, vocabulary, insights on syntax, and comprehension of complex oral and printed texts. These conditions, coupled with limited understanding of the stages of second language acquisition, tends to promote over referral to and placement in special education (National Coalition of Advocates for Schools, 1991). For example, Ochoa, Robles-Pina, Garcia, and Breunig’s (1999) study across eight states with large populations of second language learners revealed that oral language- related factors (acquisition and / or delays) were the third most common reason for referral of second language learners. Further, Ochoa et al. (1999) state that 8 of the top 13 most commonly cited reasons for referral of these learners could be linked to language; in their study, language reasons accounted for 54 percent of all responses provided. Equally, limited awareness of conditions that suggest a disability promote patterns of under referral of this population among general educators who consider the students’ problems as typical patterns of second language learners (De León & Cole, 1994). Until recently, special education in general invested modest efforts attending to the specific communication needs of second language learners and their families, and most support focused on attending to their conditions or disabilities. However, literature within the last twenty years reveals a change in this trend, the effects of which will be reviewed perhaps five years from now.

Consequently, increasing research, training, and publication efforts raise awareness and educate professionals. For example, guidelines and recommendations based on best practices for children without disabilities are advocated for second language learners with disabilities (California Department of Education, 1997; Fernández, 1992; Gersten, Brengelman, & Jimenez, 1994). The literature reflects continuous appeals to special educators and speech clinicians to incorporate modified approaches like English as a second language (ESL) and / or Sheltered English into their practice (De León & Cole, 1994; Garcia & Malkin, 1993; Gersten, Brengelman, & Jimenez, 1994). However, the appropriateness and effectiveness of such practices are yet to be validated. The following sections address critical issues and challenges related to the education of second language learners with disabilities served in special education programs.

Heterogeneity

Diversity effectively describes the linguistic abilities of second language learners (SLLs) served in special education programs. Different disabilities, cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, communicative abilities, and degrees of exposure to English are interacting variables that easily confound design and outcomes of many studies involving SLLs. Surveys and studies involving teachers and other categories of service providers working in programs serving SLLs reveal limited knowledge of the stages of second language acquisition through which learners advance naturally (De León & Cole, 1994; Ochoa, Rivera & Ford, 1997; Ortiz & Yates, 1988). Common practice approaches this challenge by educating second language learners as if they were native speakers of English, promoting very few, if any, modifications to interventions (Fernández, 1992). For example, use of ESL or equally meaningful approaches for the instruction of SLLs is recommended in literature but seldom is practiced (De León & Cole, 1994). Quite often, focusing on the child’s disability excludes other needs the learner might have related to his or her condition of being a second language learner (such a child is usually expected to perform like a native speaker of English). Furthermore, generic prescriptions studied and validated for children without disabilities continue to be proposed (Fueyo, 1997; Gersten et al., 1994) for a population whose specifi c linguistic characteristics remain undefined.

Assessment

English language learners (ELLs), as they are currently named, pose a challenge to those participating in the identification process. Unless their disability is obvious–orthopedic or visual impairment, or moderate to severe mental retardation–the question most evaluators encounter upon referral to assessment and possible placement is whether the learner has acquired English in all its linguistic and functional dimensions, or if the learner is advancing within the earlier stages of the long- term process of second language acquisition (Cummins & Sayers, 1995). Has the learner received appropriate instruction using methodology appropriate to the condition of learning English as a second language? Such information is critical to establish a distinction between poor performance due to ongoing development of linguistic competence, due to a disability, or a combination of both. Actually, Ochoa, Galarza, and Gonzalez (1996) found that only 6 percent of school psychologists conducting bilingual assessments of second language learners referred for special education actually implemented best practices that would enable them to obtain this critical information. Without establishing this distinction clearly, interpretation of current performance, prereferral strategies, assessment results, categorization, progress, and redesignation can be impacted negatively. Reports continue to emerge that question classification and disqualification for services and offer criticism on the interpretation of assessment data (Cheng, Ima, & Labovitz, 1994; Garcia & Malkin, 1993; Ochoa et al., 1996; Ochoa, Rivera, & Powell, 1997). These matters demand attention at policy, research, and practice levels given the increasing expectations that