The Nature of War and Warfare

General

According to international law, war is “a state of open, armed, often prolonged conflict carried on between nations, states, or parties”[9]. Likewise, the term “ warfare ” is understood as “the use of force on the part of two or more nations or other organized groups for the purpose of deciding disputes that cannot be settled by diplomatic means”.

Warfare takes a variety of forms besides organized military confrontations – insurrections, revolutions, coups d’etat, guerrilla warfare, and terrorism.

When armed conflicts assume global proportions, they are known as world wars [10]. War between different parts or factions of the same nation is called civil war. A state of war can also exist without actual recourse to arms, such as the cold war.

A rebellion is not legally considered a war because the rebels must have the power to maintain law and order within the regions occupied by them and carry on war on a large scale by land, sea, or air.

International hostilities sometimes continue for long periods of time without being acknowledged as wars. For instance, The Korean War was regarded by the U.S. government as a police action. Conflicts or wars in which major powers purposely refrain from employing all their armed strength are often known as limited wars. Limited wars are recognized as a preferable alternative to nuclear wars.

International wars are generally terminated by a treaty, and civil wars by a peace proclamation.

The military institutions of a nation and the way it wages war are determined principally by its form of government, social structure, economic strength, and geographical position. For example, before World War II, the United States, taking advantage of its isolated geographical positions, maintained only a small standing army and depended on its navy and that of Britain.

Causes of Warfare

Warfare is employed to bring about or to resist political, social, or economic changes. History provides evidence of such tangible, and frequently interrelated, causes as religious conflict, protection of dynastic succession, or acquisition of territory. War for acquisition of land is directly related to the necessity of providing food for a nation or a group. Wars are also often linked to a desire for security, on the theory that a so-called first strike prevents an enemy from carrying out threats. According to some much disputed theories, such as those of the Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz, innate aggressive drives are responsible for human beings' frequent recourse to warfare.

Planning and Organization of Warfare

The overall plan devised to defeat an enemy is called strategy. The actual techniques carried out against the enemy are tactics, which consist of the procedures for winning on the battlefield, in naval battle, and in aerial combat. Once the overall strategic plan has been approved, planning cycles at lower echelons are implemented. The execution of plans, making possible the attainment of military objectives, involves functions carried out by a field commander whose tactical judgment and leadership are critical. Logistics, which involves transporting troops and furnishing continuous supplies in support of military operations, is essential to the success of the mission. Mobilizing industry, utilities, and medical service, as well as scientific research facilities and propaganda sources, are also part of the logistics planning process.

Types of Operation

The changes in types of operation – from ancient hand-to-hand combat to modern deployment of nuclear missiles – are linked to changes in technology. The introduction of gunpowder, and the invention of the steam engine, the telegraph, and the internal-combustion engine, completely changed land and sea warfare and added a third type – air warfare.

Offensive actions involve operations to defeat the enemy’s armed forces and destroy his will to fight. Defensive warfare entails the employment of all means and methods to prevent, resist, or destroy an enemy attack. Its purpose may be twofold: to gain time pending the development of more favorable conditions to take the offensive, or to concentrate forces in one area for decisive offense elsewhere.

Psychological warfare aims at destroying an enemy’s will to resist. It includes the use of propaganda (printed, broadcast, or in the form of films) and aerial bombardment employed for its demoralizing effect on the enemy civilian population as well as on combatant forces.

The development of powerful nuclear explosive devices capable of destroying targets ranging in size from large cities to entire battlefields has changed the nature of modern warfare. The possible employment of tactical nuclear weapons on the battlefield has made it extremely hazardous to mass conventional air, sea, or land forces in any one locale. For example, aircraft carriers, large formations of heavy bombers, or concentrations of armored units could all be destroyed by a single nuclear explosion. Even more vulnerable are civilian populations and economic centers that could be devastated by nuclear warheads launched from a distance of several thousand kilometers via intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). As a result, total warfare between nations equipped with nuclear weapons has become unacceptable as a sane option.

s	Answer the questions

1. What is a war?

2. Do you think there is a difference between terms “war” and “warfare”?

3. What forms of military confrontations do you know?

4. What wars do you know?

5. What factors influence the conduct of war?

6. What are the most common causes of war?

7. What is the difference between strategy and tactics?

8. How did the advent of nuclear weapons change the nature of warfare?

 

>	Read, decipher and translate abbreviations

ICBM; WMD

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Translate into Ukrainian

According to international law; armed conflict; the use of force; to settle disputes; to settle disputes by diplomatic means; military confrontation; to assume global proportions; factions; without actual recourse to arms; to maintain law and order within the region; without being acknowledged as wars; major powers; a preferable alternative to sth; the military institutions of a nation; economic strength; social structure; a standing army; to bring about changes; political, social, or economic changes; interrelated causes; acquisition of territory; a desire for security; to prevent an enemy from carrying out threats; innate aggressive drives; at lower echelons; the attainment of military objectives; judgment; in support of military operations; mission; logistics planning; hand-to-hand combat; internal-combustion engine; steam engine; sea warfare; land, sea, and air warfare; to defeat the enemy’s armed forces; to destroy the enemy’s will to resist; to prevent an enemy attack; to gain time; to create favorable conditions for the offensive; to concentrate forces in one area; to aim at sth; broadcast propaganda.

 

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Translate into English

Суперечності; відкритий конфлікт; довготривалий конфлікт; дипломатичними засобами; розбіжності, які не можна врегулювати дипломатичними засобами; воєнні дії; знаходити свій прояв у різних формах; організовані військові протистояння; стан війни; повстанці; тривати впродовж довгого часу; навмисно утримуватись від застосування збройної міці; завершуватись договором; форма правління; географічне положення; користуватися перевагами відособленого географічного положення; причини війни; чинити опір змінам; війна за оволодіння землею; перший удар; природні агресивні бажання; загальний стратегічний план; виконання планів; польовий командир; лідерські якості; бути необхідним для успішного виконання бойового завдання; види бойових дій; розгортання ядерних ракет; порох; воєнні дії на суші; воєнні дії в повітрі; завдавати поразки противнику; застосування всіх засобів; мати дві мети; сприятливі умови для наступу; рішучий наступ; друкована пропаганда; кінопропаганда.

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Translate quickly

Згідно з нормами міжнародного права; open conflict; збройний конфлікт; prolonged conflict; використання сили; disputes; врегулювати розбіжності; by diplomatic means; військове протистояння; organized military confrontations; набувати всесвітніх масштабів; disputes that cannot be settled by diplomatic means; угруповання; a state of war; без реального застосування зброї; rebels; підтримувати законність і правопорядок в регіоні; to purposely refrain from employing the armed strength; без визнання в якості війни; to be terminated by a treaty; головні держави; the form of government; військові організації країни; geographical position; економічна міць; causes of warfare; соціальна структура; to take advantage of isolated geographical position; приводити до змін; to resist changes; взаємопов’язані причини; war for acquisition of land; бажання мати безпеку; first strike; не дозволяти противнику реалізувати загрози; the overall strategic plan; на нижчих рівнях; the execution of plans; виконання військових завдань; leadership; розсудливість; to be essential to sth; бойове завдання; types of operation; планування МТЗ; deployment of nuclear missiles; рукопашний бій; gunpowder; двигун внутрішнього згорання; land warfare; зламати волю противника чинити опір; to create favorable conditions for the offensive; вигравати час; decisive offense; зосереджувати війська в одному районі.

A	Build up your vocabulary

 

war

Війна; воєнний

accidental war – війна, що почалася випадково

all-out war – загальна, тотальна війна

at war (with) – у стані війни (з ким-небудь)

atomic war – атомна війна

conventional war – війна з застосуванням звичайних видів зброї; неядерна війна

defensive war – оборонна війна

full-scale war – повномасштабна війна

global war – глобальна війна

holy war – священна війна

hot war – справжня війна

ideological war – ідеологічна війна

star wars – зоряні війни

the art of war – воєнне мистецтво

thermonuclear war – термоядерна війна

to ban a war, – забороняти війну

to carry the war into the enemy’s territory – переносити війну на територію противника

to conduct a war; fight a war – вести війну

to end a war – закінчити війну

to escalate a war – нарощувати воєнні дії

to lose а war – програвати війну

to outlaw a war – визнавати війну незаконною

to wage /to make/ war on /against/ sb – вести війну /воювати/ з ким-небудь

to win а war – вигравати війну

war criminal – воєнний злочинець

war debt – воєнний борг

war film – воєнний фільм

war of attrition – війна на виснаження

war of movement – маневрена війна

war of position – позиційна війна

 

faction

Угруповання

extremist faction – екстремістське угруповання

rebel faction – група повстанців

contending faction – угруповання, що суперничає

opposing faction – вороже угруповання

 

N	Translate at sight

US War-making Authority [11]

Today most nations have assigned a special status to nuclear, biological, and certain kinds of chemical weapons. All are indiscriminate weapons that can devastate wide areas by killing and injuring soldiers and civilians alike. Their use cannot be justified by battlefield necessity alone. The authority to unleash such weapons is thus reserved for the highest levels of the national government.

In the U.S., the president, as head of the armed forces, retains sole authority over their employment, but even the president has to answer to the legislative branch except in cases of the greatest national emergency such as a surprise strategic missile attack.

Threatened U.S. missile sites, for example, might be ordered to launch their own ICBMs as soon as possible. U.S. military aircraft, especially the strategic bombers, could become airborne, and U.S. warships and naval aircraft could provide protection for the launching of ballistic missiles by submarines.

In addition, to preserve the national decision-making power, the president and other key leaders would be transported rapidly to remote, ground-based command centers. Presidential authority and control can be maintained during this move from aboard an airborne mobile command center – a large jetliner that is equipped with elaborate communications gear.

No less important is civilian control of tactical nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons on loan to allied military forces. In each case, presidential approval is needed before a weapon's employment. These procedures not only increase civilian control over nuclear weapons but also enhance their special status, making their use by either side in a conflict less likely.

 

O	Translate by ear

The World Wars [12]

World War I (1914-1918) began as a war of movement. However, a stalemate developed after the first few weeks. Each side suffered enormous casualties in efforts to breach the other's defenses. New weapons such as the airplane and the tank were introduced. The submarine revolutionized sea warfare.

World War II (1939-1945) marked a return to the war of movement. The Germans won initial success by employing massed tanks. It was done with a Napoleonic boldness in Poland and France. The Allies were eventually able to defeat them by virtue of superior numbers and industrial strength. Armor was used to great advantage in Russia, North Africa, and in Western Europe. Amphibious operations played an important role in the Pacific war. It was fought over a wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Naval aviation and the aircraft carrier became the major weapons of the war at sea. Some battles such as Midway were fought without the opposing fleets drawing within sight of each other. A major feature of most conflicts since World War II has been the use of guerrilla tactics. In guerrilla warfare the friendly forces try to engage the enemy in a total war. This type of warfare is also called “people's war”.

 

Translate in writing

Відповідно до сучасних норм міжнародного права збройні конфлікти можна поділити на міжнародні і внутрішні[13]. Класичним прикладом внутрішнього збройного конфлікту є громадянська війна. Незалежно від форми конфлікту ворогуючі сторони зобов’язані дотримуватись норм міжнародного гуманітарного права. Особи, які порушують ці норми під час війни або воєнних дій, можуть бути визнані воєнними злочинцями. В Україні передбачено кримінальну відповідальність осіб за скоєння воєнних злочинів та злочинів проти миру і людства.

За часів “холодної війни” та біполярного світу протистояння держав призвело до численних локальних війн і конфліктів. Ядерна зброя була стримуючим фактором для запобігання черговій світовій війні. Проте в жодній обмеженій або локальній війні міжнародне співтовариство не спромоглося ідентифікувати агресора та покарати винних. Відтепер ніхто не оголошує війну, оскільки така дія автоматично підпадає під визначення агресії. Воєнні дії фактично розпочинаються разом із взаємними звинуваченнями сторін. Тому в усіх офіційних міжнародних документах замість терміна “війна” вживається термін “збройний конфлікт”.

 

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Act as an interpreter

 

Якими є прояви конфліктів у сучасному суспільстві?	Conflicts spill over into our societies in the form of migration, rising numbers of asylum seekers and smuggling of humans, drugs and weapons[14].
Терористичні напади на Сполучені Штати 11 вересня 2001 року стали своєрідним вододілом.	We must also expect more terrorism, more failed states and more proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
Ідеальним притулком для терористів є політично неблагонадійна держава, де вони можуть діяти безкарно.	Unfortunately, not every state is sustainable. We believe that even in an era of globalization, the state remains the central organizing principle of modern civilization.
Поширення зброї масового знищення залишатиметься головною проблемою безпеки.	The ultimate threat to our societies will emerge should weapons of mass destruction end up in the hands of terrorists.
Що викликає особливе занепокоєння?	Particularly worrying is the combination of rogue states developing the weapons of mass destruction and terrorists ready and willing to use them.

 

Lesson 3
National Security

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Active terms and expressions

 

national security and defense	національна безпека і оборона
defense advantage	оборонна перевага
military advantage	військова перевага
defense posture	стан обороноздатності
hostile action	дії противника
national security strategy	стратегія національної безпеки
national power	національна міць
national military strategy (NMS)	національна військова стратегія
military power	військова міць
military forces	військові сили
paramilitary forces	воєнізовані сили
armed forces	збройні сили
armed services	види збройних сил
Army, the	Сухопутні війська (СВ)
Navy, the	Військово-морські сили (ВМС)
Air Force, the	Військово-повітряні сили (ВПС)
national interests	національні інтереси
national goals	національні цілі
national objectives	національні завдання
national policy	національна політика
national security interests	інтереси національної безпеки
national security goals	цілі національної безпеки
national security objectives	завдання національної безпеки
national security policy	політика національної безпеки
statements of guidance	визначення напрямків
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine	Верховна Рада України
Head of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine	Голова Верховної Ради України
Prime-minister of Ukraine	Прем’єр-міністр України
Minister of Emergencies and Population Protection from the Consequences of Chornobyl Catastrophe	Міністр України з питань надзвичайних ситуацій та у справах захисту населення від наслідків Чорнобильської катастрофи
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine	Міністр закордонних справ України
Minister of Defense of Ukraine	Міністр оборони України
Head of Presidential Administration	Глава Адміністрації Президента України
Minister of Finance of Ukraine	Міністр фінансів України
Head of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine	Голова Державної прикордонної служби України
President of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine	Президент Національної академії наук України
Head of the Security Service of Ukraine	Голова Служби безпеки України
Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine	Міністр внутрішніх справ України
Minister of Justice of Ukraine	Міністр юстиції України
Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine	Начальник Генерального штабу Збройних сил України
Minister of Economics of Ukraine	Міністр економіки України

 

*****

a military advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations	військова перевага над будь-якою іноземною країною або групою країн
in pursuit of national objectives	для досягнення національних завдань
to assist the president in pursuing national security policy	допомагати президентові у здійсненні політики національної безпеки
&		Prepare translation of the main text

National Security

National security is commonly devised as preparedness for military action, protection of resources considered critical to the functioning of a nation to protect a country from attack or subversion.

It is a collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of a country, specifically, the condition provided by: 1. a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations, or 2. a favorable foreign relations position, or 3. a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert[15].

The concept of national security is based on a national security strategy – the art and science of developing, applying, and coordinating diplomatic, economic, military, and informational instruments of the national power – to achieve objectives that contribute to national security.

The concept of national security and defense is also based on national military strategy – the art and science of distributing and applying military power (i.e.the military and paramilitary forces) to attain national objectives in peace and war.

The military forces of a nation are called armed forces. The term is used to denote collectively all components of the Army, Navy, Air Force and other armed services.

National objectives are the aims, derived from national goals and interests, toward which a national policy or strategy is directed and efforts and resources of the nation are applied. The national policy is commonly recognized as a broad course of action or statements of guidance adopted by the government at the national level in pursuit of national objectives.

Moreover, the concept of national defense and security is interwoven with the notions of national security interests –the foundation for the development of valid national objectives that define country’s goals or purposes. For example, the US national security interests include “preserving US political identity, framework, and institutions; fostering economic well-being; and bolstering international order supporting the vital interests of the United States and its allies”[16].

National security is based on the constitution, laws, international treaties, agreements, doctrines, concepts, and other legal acts[17].

Various organizations and agencies are directly concerned with national security issues. In Ukraine, for instance, there is a governmental body – the Council of National Security and Defense of Ukraine (CNSDU) – specifically designed to assist the President (who is the Head of the Council under the Costitution) in pursuing national security policy. The CNSDU also comprises the Head of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, the Prime-minister of Ukraine, the Council’s Secretary, the Minister of Emergencies and Population Protection from the Consequences of Chornobyl Catastrophe, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, the Minister of Defense of Ukraine, the Head of the Presidential Administration, the Minister of Finance of Ukraine, the Head of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine, the President of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, the Head of the Security Service of Ukraine, the Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, the Minister of Justice of Ukraine, the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the Minister of Economics of Ukraine.

The principles and tasks of the CNSDU activity are determined by the Law of Ukraine “On Council of National Security and Defense of Ukraine” of 1998 and the Concept of National Security and Defense of Ukraine, ratified by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine in 1997. The Law defines functions and authorities of the Council in peace and war, its organizational structure and membership, members’ duties etc.

s	Answer the questions

1. What is national security?

2. What is the difference between national goals, objectives, and interests?

3. What are the US national security interests?

4. What governmental organization assists the Ukrainian President in pursuing national security policy?

 

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Translate into Ukrainian

Preparedness for military action; a military advantage; from within or without; in pursuit of national objectives; overt or covert; to achieve objectives that contribute to national security; to attain national objectives; in peace and war; to be derived from sth; a broad course of action; identity; to support the vital interests; to support the vital interests of the United States and its allies; legal acts; foreign relations; economic well-being; to pursue national security policy.

 

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Translate into English

Руйнівні дії; сприятливий стан міжнародних відносин; базуватися на чомусь; досягати національних цілей у мирний та воєнний час; виходити з інтересів національної безпеки; зберігати політичну своєрідність; сприяти економічному добробуту; підтримувати життєво важливі інтереси України; допомагати президентові у здійсненні політики національної безпеки.

ó

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Translate quickly

Оборонна перевага; national security and defense; стан обороноздатності; hostile action; стратегія національної безпеки; national power; національна військова стратегія; military power; військові сили; paramilitary forces; збройні сили; armed services; Сухопутні війська; Navy; Військово-повітряні сили; national interests; національні цілі; national objectives; національна політика; national security interests; цілі національної безпеки; national security objectives; політика національної безпеки; statements of guidance; Верховна Рада України; the Head of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine; Прем’єр-міністр України; the Minister of Defense of Ukraine; міністр закордонних справ України; the Head of Security Service of Ukraine; міністр фінансів України; the Minister of Justice of Ukraine; начальник Генерального штабу Збройних сил України; military advantage.

A	Build up your vocabulary

 

hostility