Ex.27. Choose the correct word combination to complete each of the following sentences corresponding to the contents of the text.

1) The remark “transportation is civilization” was made by….

a) George Washington b) Henry Ford c) James Watt

2)One of the mankind’s greatest inventions of the 18^th century was….

a) the steam engine b) the jet engine c) the internal combustion engine

3) The first stationary steam engines were installed….

a) at large farms b) at various industrial enterprises c) at coal mines

4) One of the first attempts to put a steam engine on wheels was made by….

a) Richard Trevithick b) Thomas Newcomen c) George Stephenson

5) The first common carrier railway in Britain was laid down between….

a) Manchester and Liverpool b) Stockton and London c) Darlington and Stockton

6) The famous steam locomotive called the Rocket moved at a speed of….

a) 46 miles per hour b) 12 miles per hour c) 29 miles per hour

7) The British Parliament objected to constructing railways because….

a) people were afraid of railways b) the members of the British Parliament did not believe that locomotives could run against a strong wind c) there were no materials for the construction of railroads

8) John Stevens failed to build a railroad across New Jersey (the USA) because….

a) he couldn’t find railway workers b) he was unable to raise the money

c) people of the state objected to constructing

10) The construction of the Baltimore-Ohio railroad lasted….

a) ten years b) one year c) three years

11) The first American-built steam locomotive was called….

a) Stourbridge Lion b) Best Friend of Charleston c) Rocket

12) Railroads became the dominant means of overland transportation in the United States….

a) in the 18^th century b) in the first half of the 19^th century

c) in the last half of the 19^th century

Ex.28. You know that there are various types of engines, such as: the water-powered engine, the wind-powered engine, the steam engine, the internal combustion engine (diesel, petrol, electric, jet). Read the following sentences and say which type of the engine is described.

1) In this engine fuel ignites and burns inside the engine itself and not in a furnace.

2) This engine is very economical; it doesn't need fuel to function. But it is dependent on the weather.

3) In this engine there is a furnace and a boiler. The furnace is filled with wood or coal and then lit. The fire heats the water in the boiler and when it boils, it turns into steam.

4) It was a wheel but a very small one. Long wide wooden blades were attached to it. The wheel was driven by the wind.

5) This engine is too large and heavy, and needs too much fuel.

6) This engine is an ordinary wheel with blades fixed to it and the current of a river turned it. It was used for irrigating fields.

7) This engine is lighter and smaller than a steam engine because it doesn't have a boiler. It is more powerful than a steam engine because it uses better-quality fuel: petrol or kerosene.

8) The power of this engine depends on the quantity of coal. The more coal is put into the furnace, the stronger the fire is burning. The more steam there is the faster a train is moving.

9) This engine is the most ecologically friendly one, because it doesn't pollute environment with exhausted gases.

10) This engine is now used in automobiles, diesel locos and motor ships.

11) This engine is the most powerful, because the gases in it reach the temperature of over a thousand degrees.

Ex.29. Translate the following texts: (a) Russian from Russian into English and (b) from English into (do it in written form).

(a) НАЧАЛО СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВА ЖЕЛЕЗНЫХ ДОРОГ В РОССИИ

Строительство железных дорог в России началось во второй половине 18 века. Первые вагонеточные пути были проложены на Урале. Они использовались для перевозки угля с шахт на Колывано-Воскресенский завод (Kolyvano-Voskresensk Works). Как рельсы, так и шпалы были сделаны из дерева. Уголь перевозили в деревянных тележках (a wooden hand-cart), которые назывались «собаками», потому что скрип несмазанных колёс (the creak of unlubricated wheels) был похож на визг (a squeal) собаки. Следует упомянуть, что тележки приводились в движение водяным колесом, в то время как в Европе основной движущей силой был ручной труд.

Такие русские изобретатели, как А.С. Ярцев, отец и сын Фроловы, сыграли важную роль в истории строительства железных дорог. Ярцев предложил заменить деревянные рельсы чугунными и в 1788 году построил первую «чугунку» на артиллерийском заводе (Gun Works) в Петрозаводске. 30 лет спустя другая железная дорога с чугунными рельсами была проложена в Алтайских горах инженером Фроловым. Её длина была 2 км. Железная дорога приводилась в движение лошадьми. Следует заметить, что лошади заменили (труд) около 500 рабочих.

Следующий этап в истории железнодорожного транспорта в России начался с изобретения парового двигателя. Он был изобретён И.И. Ползуновым, а отец и сын Черепановы построили первый паровоз. Он двигался со скоростью 13-16 км в час и мог перевозить 3.3 т грузов и 40 пассажиров. Первый паровоз был испытан в Нижнем Тагиле. Л.Гумилёвский писал в своей книге «Русские инженеры»: «Нижнетагильскую железную дорогу, сооружённую русскими мастерами, из русских материалов, по проекту русских изобретателей следует считать (should be considered) первой русской железной дорогой».

(b) THE OLDEST RAILWAY IN RUSSIA

The St. Petersburg–Moscow mainline is considered to be the oldest and the most outstanding railway in Russia.

In the thirties of the 19^th century much was spoken about the necessity of its construction and various projects were proposed by Pravdin, Safonov, Muravjov, Abaza, but all of them were rejected.

In June 1839 the professors of the Moscow Engineering Institute P.P.Melnikov and N.O. Kraft were sent to the USA for the purpose of studying experience gained by the Americans in constructing and operating the railways. Melnikov's report about the results of their trip laid down the basis of the future railway project.

According to this project «chugunka» was planned as a double-track line, 664 km long, with the 5 feet gauge (now the standard), steam powered. The speed of passenger and freight trains was supposed to be 34.4 km/h and 16 km/h respectively.

The construction began in 1843 and lasted 8 years. From the very beginning the builders faced many hardships because of severe climatic and difficult geological conditions. Hundreds of kilometers of track were laid down through forests and marshes, many rivers were crossed. It should be noted that the line is virtually straight and level. 185 bridges and 19 viaducts were built to make the line as straight as possible. There is a legend that the route of the railway was chosen by the tsar Nikolay I, who took the map and the ruler, drew a straight line between the two cities on the map and ordered this line to be the route of the railway. But the fact is that the construction of the line was preceded by long and thorough surveying work, a great part of which was done by P.P.Melnikov himself.

All the component parts of the track, bridges and viaducts were produced at Russian plants by using only domestic materials, including timber for sleepers and cast iron for rails.

One has to give credit (нужно отдать должное) to the first railway builders, who laid the track in extremely difficult conditions. They worked from dawn till sunset, often in water up to their knees and their main tools were spades and axes. P.P. Melnikov proposed to mechanize the railway construction, but his idea was not backed up because it required a lot of expenses, although four excavators were bought in the USA on Melnikov's recommendation. It is interesting to note that at that time there were only seven excavators in the world. The other three ones were operated in the USA and Great Britain.

The railway was officially opened for public traffic on November 1, 1851. The first train departed from St. Petersburg at 11.15 and arrived in Moscow 21 hours 45 minutes later. There were 17 passengers in the first-class cars, 63 – in the second-class cars and 112 – in the third-class cars. The speed of the first trains was 40 km/h but two years later it was increased up to 60 km/h. It was the world's record in the speed of passenger trains. It should be added that the Alexander Engineering Works was established in St. Petersburg to provide this railway with locomotives and cars.

Ex.30. Answer the following questions.

1) When were the first projects of the railway construction proposed? 2) Why was it necessary to connect the two capitals in Russia? 3) Whose project of construction was accepted? 4) Why were Melnikov and Kraft sent to America? 5) When did the construction begin? 6) How long did the construction last? 7) Why was it difficult to build the railway? 8) What was built to make the line as straight as possible? 9) Is there any legend about the construction? 10) What were the rails and sleepers made of? 11) What equipment was used for the construction? 12) What was done to facilitate the workers' labor? 13) When was the railway officially opened for public traffic? 14) What time did the first train depart from St. Petersburg and arrive in Moscow? 15) How many passengers were there in the first train? 16) What was its speed? 17) What plant was established to provide this railway with rolling stock?

Ex.31. Arrange the following sentences in a chronological order, put questions to the underlined words and using your questions, tell about the beginning of railway construction in Russia.

1) The first steam locomotive was tested in Nizhniy Tagil. 2) The first railway carrying passengers was officially opened for public traffic in 1851. 3) Such engineers as P.K. Frolov, A.S. Yartsev, and I.I. Polsunov made great contribution to the development of railway transport in Russia. 4) The first tram ways were laid down in the Urals. 5) The history of railway construction in Russia began in the second half of the 18'^h century. 6) I.I. Polsunov invented the stationary steam engine in 1763. 7) At the beginning of the 19^th century it was decided to build the railway connecting two Russian capitals. 8) A.S. Yartsev suggested using cast iron rails instead of wooden ones in 1788. 9) The Cherepanovs constructed the first steam locomotive. 10) The construction of the St. Petersburg-Moscow line began in 1843 and lasted eight years. 11) P.K. Frolov built “chugunka” in the Altai Mountains. 12) The first tram ways were used for carrying coal, ore and other goods. 13) The railway constructed by P.K. Frolov was horse-powered. 14) Goods were transported in carts driven by the water wheel.