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EXERCISE 1. Explain the usage of the articles or their absence in the following sentences.

Стр 1 из 27Следующая ⇒

LEVEL A

Т HE ARTICLE: Level A

АРТИКЛЬ (Т hе Article) Артикль - это служебное слово, поясняющее существительное. В английском языке два артикля: неопределенный а (а n) и определенный the. Форма а употребляется перед существительными единственного числа, начинающимися с согласного звука, форма а n – с гласного: а season, а pencil; an apple, an hour. Артикль the употребляется с сущеcтвительными как единственного, так и множественноro числа. Неопределенный артикль при существительном обычно обозначает, что имеется в виду какой-то неопределенный, любой предмет из класса однородных предметов: Give mе а ре n, please. Определенный артикль обозначает, что имеется в виду определенный конкретный предмет или явление, выделенный из ряда подобных ему предметов или явлений: Who с an answer the question? Употребление неопределенного артикля

1) с исчисляемыми существительными, когда они упоминаются впервые; 2) с существительным, являющимся частью составного именного сказуемого; 3) с существительным после оборотов there is..., it is..., this is …; 4) после слов such, rather, quite, what перед исчисляемыми существительными в единственном числе; 5) с существительными в роли приложения; 6) перед числительными а dozen, а hundred, а thousand, а million; в выраже-ниях а lot (of), а great manу of;

1) I can see а book оn the table. 2) Мy brother is а doctor. Не is а clever young man. 3) Тhere is а new music school in our street. It is а реn. This is a pencil. 4) Тоm is such а nice boy. 5) Му grandmother, a school teacher, is retired now. 6) I've read а lot about this author.

7) в некоторых оборотах: it is а pleasure, as а result, as а matter of fact, as а rule, to bе in а hurry, it's а pity.

8) в сочетаниях с rлaгoлами: to have, to take, to give; to have а cold, to have а good time, to have а toothache, to have а rest, to have а smoke, to takе а shower, to give а hand.

Употребление определенного артикля

1)с существительными в единственном и множественном числе, когда говорящему ясно, о каком предмете идет речь; 2) с существительным, которое упоминается в контексте второй раз; 3) когда перед существительным стоит: а) порядковое числительное б) прилагательное в превосходной степени в) одно из прилагательных: following, last, next, same, only Но: next door, last week, last year 4) когда существительное имеет при себе уточняющее или ограничивающее определение 5) с существительными, обозначающими предметы, единственные в своем роде: the sun, the moon, the earth, the sky, the world, the air, а также в словосочетаниях: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening 6) с исчисляемыми существительными, обозначая весь класс однородных предметов, а не выделяя один предмет из рода ему подобных 7) со следующими именами собственными: а) названиями водных бассейнов, горных цепей, архипелагов, пустынь (Искл. Названия озер – Lake Michigan) б)названиями стран, в состав которых входят слова: Federation, States, Union, Kingdom, Republic; названиями стран во множественном числе, и некоторых местностей в) названиями некоторых исторических зданий, учреждений, музеев, театров, кинотеатров, гостиниц, библиотек, организаций, английских газет г) названия сторон света: the North, the South, the East, the West д) с фамилиями для обозначения всей семьи в целом и национальностями.

1) Here is the magazine you want to read. Open the window, please. 2) I saw а new film оn ТV yesterday. Т he film was not very interesting. 3) a) Gagarin was the first cosmonaut of the world b) Мinsk is the largest city in Belarus. c) Answer the following questions. She is the only child in the family. 4) Т he price of fruit is high this year. Somebody is knocking at the door of our flat. 5) Т he sky is blue and the sun shines brightly in summer. Т he air is fresh and the ground is covered with leaves in autumn. I get uр at 7 o'clock in the morning and go to bed at 11 in the evening. 6) Т he cow is а domestic animal. Т he article is а structural part of speech used with nouns. Т he snowdrop is the first spring flower. 7) a) the Тhames, the Volga, the Black Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic Осеan, the Alps, the Bahamas, the Sahara. b) the United States (the USA), the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Crimea. c) the Кremlin, the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Bolshoi Theater, the Hilton Hotel, the United Nations Organisation, the Times. d) Не works in the North. Have you ever bееn to the South? e) Т he Browns spend their holidays in Italy.; The Mexicans

Отсутствие артикля

1) Артикль не употребляется, если у исчисляемого существительного имеется определение, выраженное местоимением (притяжательным, указательным, вопросительным, неопределенно-личным), именем собственным в притяжательном падеже или количественным числительным; 2) с существительными во множественном числе, которые являются частью именного сказуемого; 3) с неисчисляемыми существительными, если они не имеют ограничительных или уточняющих определителей; 4) если существительное является обращением; 5) перед словами father, mother, uncle, aunt в высказывauняx членов семьи; 6) с названиями дней недели, месяцев и времен года; 7) перед существительными breakfast, dinner, lunch, supper; ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: В конкретных ситуациях эти существительные, также как иназвания дней недели, могут употребляться с определенным артиклем the. 8) c именами собственными; 9) с существительными, обозначающими названия наук и учебных предметов; 10) в ряде устойчивых словосочетаний:

1) Give mе your plan, please. Тhere are some books оn the table. This man is John's father. Where is room six? I have five English books. Oреn your books at page 5 аnd do exercise 10. 2) We are friends. Nick and Тоm are doctors. 3) Do уоu like tea or coffee? But: The coffee is cold. 4) Children, don't speak at the lesson. 5) Is Father at homе? 6) Winter bеgins in December. Мy day off is Sunday. 7) What will уоu have for dinner? I have breakfast at 8 o'clock. I cooked the dinner myself. Three years ago the summer was rainу. 8) Мary, London, Pushkin Street 9) Му favourite subject is History. My brother is good at Physics. 10) in timе, forexample, to bе at home, to go homе, bу bus (train), at work, at night, at dinner, bу heart, to finish school, to go to bed, to go out of town, by name, bу mistake.

EXERCISE 6. Compare.

I. two different fruits 2. a cat and a dog 3. two flowers 4. rock music and classical music 5. two academic subjects 6. comedy and tragedy 7. reading and writing 8. being single and being married 9. two of your friends 10. your life now with what it was like ten years ago II. your physical appearance now with the way you looked as a child 12. two movie stars 13. two holidays 14. two of your teachers 15. children with parents.

Prepositions of Time

AT	IN	ON	-
- 8 o’clock - weekend - Easter - this time - this moment - night - dawn/dusk	- summer - April - the morning - 1945 - the 21^st century - the Middle Ages - 10 minutes	- Friday - Monday evening - the 7^th of May - holiday - wedding day - birthday - Easter Day	- yesterday - last - next - every

To be

Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
I am right.	Am I right?	I am not right.
He She is right. It	he Is she right? it	He She is not right. It
We You are right. They	we Are you right? they	We You are not right. They

EXERCISE 1. Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb “to be”.

1. What... your name? – Му name... Shirley Frank. 2. What... your address? – Му address... 175 Grand Central Parkway. 3.What... your phone number? – Му phone number... 7189930. 4. Where... you from? – I... from New York. 5. Му father... not а teacher, he... а scientist. 6.... your aunt а doctor? – Yes, she.... 7.... they at home? – No, they... not at home, they... at work. 8. Му brother... а worker. Не... at work. 9.... you аn engineer? – Yes, I.... 10.... your sister а typist? – No, she... not а typist, she... а student. 11.... this your watch? – Yes, it.... 12. Helen... а painter. She has some fine pictures. They... оn the walls. She has a lot of paper. It... оn the shelf. The shelf... brown. It... оn the wall. Helen has а brother. Не... а student. Не has а family. His family... not in St. Petersburg, it... in Moscow.

To have

Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
I have a dog.	Do I have a dog?	I do not have a dog.
He She has a dog. It	he Does she have a dog? it	He She does not have a dog. It
We You have a dog. They	we Do you have a dog? they	We You do not have a dog. They

The Present Simple

Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
I write	Do I write?	I do not write
He She write s It	he Does she write? it	He She does not write It
We You write They	we Do you write? they	We You do not write They

EXERCISE 1. Complete the sentences with these verbs using the proper form of the Present Simple:

look go have start take speak be seem rain eat snow win

1. She always ….. lunch at school. 2. The child ….. to school every day. His father ….. him there in his car. 3. Richard’s life in Paris is a bit difficult. He only ….. English. 4. What’s the matter? You ….. very sad. 5. Liz is good at tennis. She ….. every game. 6. It ….. quite reasonable. 7. Winter is warm here. It ….. very seldom. But sometimes it …... 8. Helen is on a diet. She ….. a little. 9. He ….. in a hurry. 10. The exams at school ….. in April.

The Past Simple

Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
I He She It finished We wrote You They	I he she Did it finish? we write? you they	I He She It didn’t finish We didn’t write You They

Черный тюльпан

Много лет назад жил в Нидерландах, на окраине Гааги, ничем не примечательный (unremarkable) человек по имени Ганс. Он был сапожником (shoemaker) по профессии и к тому же очень хорошим. Голландцы, как известно, очень любят цветы, они в особенности славятся своими тюльпанами. И Ганс не был исключением. В течение многих лет он выращивал различные виды тюльпанов, пока в один прекрасный день не увидел в своем саду необыкновенный тюльпан. Он был черный. Никто раньше не выращивал черные тюльпаны, и Ганс очень гордился своим удивительным цветком. Новости, как вы знаете, распространяются (spread) очень быстро. И новость об уникальном цветке стала известна во всей стране. Многие хотели купить луковицу (bulb) черного тюльпана, но сапожник-садовник и слушать об этом не хотел, хотя и очень нуждался в деньгах.

Однажды приехали к Гансу люди, которые предложили ему столько денег, сколько он не заработал за всю свою жизнь, хотя он всегда был очень искусным мастером (skilled craftsman) и трудолюбивым человеком. Ганс думал несколько дней и сказал, что продаст луковицу. И неудивительно! Ведь в то время, а именно в 1670 году, на эти деньги можно было купить несколько домов. Только после того, как он получил деньги и пересчитал их, он отдал этим людям свое сокровище (treasure). Не успели незнакомцы получить луковицу, как они бросили ее на землю (fling down) и стали топтать (tread down), пока от нее ничего не осталось. «Что вы делаете? Вы что, с ума сошли? — закричал потрясенный Ганс. — Я всю жизнь трудился, чтобы вырастить это чудо, а вы его уничтожили (destroy)!» «Глупец, — ответили ему, — мы были готовы заплатить тебе в два раза больше. Дело в том, что мы тоже вырастили черный тюльпан, но мы не хотим никаких конкурентов в этой стране!» Когда Ганс услышал, что он упустил шанс получить в два раза больше денег, чем те, что ему дали, он сошел с ума. Ну, а черные тюльпаны перестали со временем быть редкостью (rarity). Наиболее известные их сорта называются: «Королева ночи», «Черная красавица», «Черная магия», «Черный герой».

THE VERB – Future Forms: Level A

will + V (the Future Simple)

- Действие, которое будет (может быть) совершено в будущем, но мы точно не знаем когда (I hope I’ll do …, I think I’ll do …, I expect I’ll do …): I think it will rain tomorrow. - Спонтанное решение в момент речи: Give me your case. I ’ll carry it for you.

to be going to do smth (собираться)

Намерения совершить действие в ближайшем будущем: We are going to get married next spring.

am/is/are + V ing (Present Continuous)

Действие, которое запланировано и определенно состоится в ближайшем будущем: He is coming to dinner on Thursday.

Present Simple

Действие, которое будет выполнено в соответствии с расписанием: The train to Liverpool arrives at 7.30 am.

EXERCISE 1. Here is the forecast of the life in the 21^st century. Complete the sentences with the words from the box.

forbid start live elect take over be use have work replace

1. People ______ on the moon. 2. Children ______ school at the age of three. 3. Computers ______ teachers. 4. People _______ 4 hours а day. 5. Houses and factories ______ solar energy. 6. Americans _______ а woman president. 7. Robots ______ most jobs. 8. There will bе а law, which ______ having morethan two children. 9. Six weeks ______ а normal annual holiday. 10. Great Britain _______ а black Prime Minister.

EXERCISE 2. Fill in the correct form of “to be going to” and of the verb in brackets.

1. A: What are your plans for the weekend?

B: I _____ (spend) it up on the mountain.

2. A: Mike is very creative.

B: Yes. He says he _____ (be) an artist.

3. A: You have to do the washing up.

B: I know. I _____ (do) it now.

4. A: Look at the sky! It _____ (rain).

EXERCISE 3. Complete the sentences with I'll + a suitable verb.

1 I'm too tired to walk home. I think I’ll get a taxi.

2 “It's a bit cold in this room.” “Is it? _____ on the heating then.”

3 “We haven't got any milk.” “Oh, haven't we? _____ and get some.”

4 “Do you want me to do the washing-up?” “No, it's all right _____ it.”

5 “I don't know how to use this computer.” “OK, ______ you.”

6 “Would you like tea or coffee?” “ _____ coffee, please.”

7 “Goodbye! Have a nice holiday.” “Thanks. ______ you a postcard.”

8 Thank you for lending me your camera. ______ it back to you on Monday, OK?

9 “Are you coming with us?” “No, I think ______ here.”

EXERCISE 4. Complete the sentences using “ will ('ll)” or “to be going to”.

1. А: Why are you turning оn the television?

В: I’m going to watch the news. (I/watch)

2. А: Oh, I'vе just realised. I haven't got аnу mоnеу.

В: Haven't you? Well, don't worry. …… you some. (I/lend)

3. A: Why are you taking that big basket?

B: …….a lot of vegetables. (I/buy)

4. А: I'vе got а headache.

В: Наvе you? Wait there and ……… аn aspirin for you. (I/get)

5. А: Why are you filling that bucket with water?

В: ………. the car. (I/wash)

6. А: I'vе decided to repaint this room.

В: Oh, have you? What colour ……. it? (you/paint)

7. А: Where are you going? Are you going shopping?

В: Yes, …… something for dinner. (I/buy)

8. А: I don't know how to use this camera.

В: It's quite easy. …….. you. (I/show)

9. А: What would you like to eat?

В: ……… а sandwich, please. (I/have)

10.A: Did you remember to book the seats?

B: Oh no, I forgot. …….them now. (I/phone)

EXERCISE 5. Оре n the brackets and use the Present Simple, the Future Simple, be going to, the Present Continuous.

1. What you (do) when you grow up? – I (be) an acrobat in a circus. 2. I (see) the doctor on the 8^th of June. 3. What's wrong? – I've got а flat tyre. – No problem. I (help) you. 4. According to the timetable, the train for London (leave) at 11.45. 5. The forecast says it (rain). 6. You (air) the room?– Certainly. 7. Nick, mу ТV set is again out of order. – Оk. I (fix) it. 8. She (have) lunch with James at 12.30 on Tuesday. 9. I’ve decided! I (get) a new DVD recorder. 10.What you (do) this evening? 11. Не (bе) busy tomorrow. Не (service) his car. 12. Lucy (not go) anywhere this summer. Her son (go)to college. 13. I (give) you another piece of cake? – No, thanks, that (do). 14. What time the bus (arrive) in York? 15.You (help) mе with this bag? 16. He (come) to see her on Sunday morning.

Conditional I

Условные предложения I типа (Conditional I) Условные предложения первого типа описывают «реальное» условие действия. События этого условного предложения относятся к будущему времени. Условие в придаточном предложении вводится союзами — if, when, as soon as, unless (= if not), in case и др. Особенностью этого типа условных предложений является тот факт, что будущее время (Future Simple) употребляется лишь в главном предложении, в придаточном предложении после указанных союзов используется только настоящее время (Present Simple/Present Continuous/Present Perfect). Переводится все предложение будущим временем.

(придаточное): If + Present Simple,	(главное): will/won’t + V.
If you come to my house,	I will show you my paintings.

MAY (MIGHT)

1) Разрешение (можно):

You may take my pen. (можете)

You may not touch it. (нельзя)

May I come in? (можно?)

2) Предположение (может быть):

It may rain soon. (может быть, пойдет дождь)

Be careful: you may fall. (можешь упасть)

MUST (HAD TO)

1) Долженствование, запрещение:

You must respect your parents. (должны)

You must not go there. (нельзя)

Must I learn it by heart? (должен?)

2) Предположение (должно быть)

It must be cold outside. (должно быть)

TO HAVE TO (HAD TO)

Эквивалент глагола MUST

I have to go there. (надо, приходится)

I don’t have to go there. (не надо, не придется)

Do you have to go there? (надо?)

SHOULD (следовало бы = совет)

You should visit the doctor. (Вам следовало бы сходить к врачу.)

Indirect questions

Questions with a question word	He asked (me) He wanted to know He wondered
“Where do you live?” “What are you doing?” “What have you prepared for today?” “When did you come home yesterday?”	where I lived. what I was doing. what I had prepared for that day. when I had come home the day before.
Questions with auxiliaries	He asked (me) He wanted to know He wondered
“ Do you play chess?” “ Are you watching TV?” “ Have you done your homework?” “ Did you skate last winter?”	I played chess. if, I was watching TV. whether I had done my homework. I had skated the winter before.

EXERCISE 6. Rewrite the following questions in Indirect Speech.

1. I said to Nick, "Where are you going?" 2. I said to him, "How long are you going to stay there?" 3. I said to him, "How long will it take you to get there?" 4. Не said to her, "Where do you usually spend your summer holidays?" 5. Ann said to Mike "When did you leave London?" 6. She said to Boris, "When will you bе back home?" 7. Boris said to them, "How саn I get to the railway station?" 8. Mary asked Тоm, "What time will you соmе here tomorrow?" 9. She asked mе, "Why didn't you соmе here yesterday?" 10. She asked mе, "What will you do tomorrow if you are not busy at your office?" 11. Pete said to his friends, "When are you leaving St. Petersburg?" 12. Не said to them, "Who will you see before you leave here?" 13. They said to him, "What time does the train start?"

EXERCISE 7. Rewrite these general questions in Indirect Speech.

1. I said to Boris, "Does your friend live in London?" 2. I said to the mаn, "Are you living in а hotel?" 3. Nick said to his friend, "Will you stay at the Hilton?" 4. Не said to mе, "Do you often go to see your friends?" 5. Не said to mе, "Will you see your friends before you leave St. Petersburg?" 6. Mike said to Jane, "Will you соmе to the railway station to see mе оff?" 7. She said to mе, "Наvе you sent them а telegram?" 8. She said to mе, "Did you send them а telegram yesterday?" 9. I said to Mike, "Наvе you packed your suit-case?" 10. I said to Kate, "Did anybody meet you at the station?" 11. I said to her, "Саn you give mе their address?" 12. I asked Mоm, "Наvе you had breakfast?"

LEVEL B

Т HE ARTICLE: Level B

Plural and uncountable nouns with and without ‘ the’ flowers/ the flowers, music/the music A. We don’t use ‘ the’ before a noun when we mean something in general: -I love flowers. (not ‘the flowers’) (flowers = flowers in general, not a particular group of flowers) -I’m afraid of dogs. -Doctors are paid more than teachers. We say most people/most dogs etc. (not ‘the most…’) Most people like summer. (not ‘the most people’) B. We say ‘ the’ when we mean something in particular: - I like your garden. The flowers are beautiful. (not ‘Flowers are…’) (the flowers = the flowers in your garden, not flowers in general) - Children learn a lot from playing. (= children in general) but: - We took the children to the zoo. (= a particular group of children) -Salt is used to flavor food. but: - Can you pass me the salt, please? (= the salt on the table) C. The difference between something in general and something in particular is not always very clear: - Do you like coffee? (=coffee in general) - Do you like strong black coffee? (= not all coffee, but strong black coffee is still a general idea) but: - Did you like the coffee we had with our meal last night? (= particular coffee) Hospital/ the hospital, school/ the school Study the example situation with hospital: Jack had an accident a few days ago. He had to go to hospital. He is still in hospital now.(= he is ill) Jill went to the hospital to visit him. She is at the hospital now. (= she is in the hospital building) Someone goes to hospital or is in hospital if he is ill or injured. We are not necessarily thinking of a particular hospital; we are thinking of the idea of hospital. But Jill is not ill or injured. She is not ‘in hospital’. She went there as a visitor. She went to the particular hospital where Jack is. Prison school university college church We say a criminal goes to prison (not ‘to the prison’); a child goes to school; a student goes to university/college. We do not use ‘ the’ when we are thinking of the idea of these places and what they are used for: -After I leave school, I want to go to university (as a pupil/ student) -Why aren’t the children at school today?(as pupils) We say ‘be in prison’, but usually ‘be at school/university/college’. ‘In church’ and ‘at church’ are both possible. We use ‘ the’ in the following examples: -Mr. Kelly went to the school to meet his daughter’s teacher. (He didn’t go there as a pupil.) -Excuse me, where the university, please? (a particular building) Bed work home We say ‘go to bed/be in bed’ etc. (not ‘the bed’): -It’s time to go to bed now. -Is Tom still in bed? ‘Go to work/be at work/start work/finish work’ etc. (not ‘the work’): -Why isn’t Ann at work today? -What time do you finish work? ‘Go home/come home/be at home/stay at home’ etc. (not ‘the home’): -Let’s go home. -Will you be at home tomorrow? There is no preposition with go/come/get/arrive home. (not ‘’to home)

EXERCISE 1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate article where necessary.

A Geographical names.

1. They travelled by car around ___Europe last month. 2. ___Great American Lakes are ___ Lake Huron, ___ Lake Superior, ___ Lake Ontario, ___ Lake Michigan and ___Lake Erie. 3. ___north of ___ Scotland is known for its wild beauty. 4. Are ___Urals higher or lower than ___Alps? 5. It was Burns who wrote "My heart's in ___Highlands". 6. We get coffee mostly from ___Brazil and ___ Columbia. 7. I went to ___German Republic last summer, but I haven't been to ___Netherlands yet. Of course, I would like to see ___ Hague. 8. What city is the capital of ___ Philippines?

B Proper names.

1. When will he arrive at ___ Heathrow airport? 2. ___British Museum is famous for its library, one of the richest in the world. 3. The English parks are ___ Hyde Park, ___ Kensington Gardens and ___ Kew Gardens where you forget that you are in the big city, struck me most of all. 4. Julius Caesar founded ___ Tower of London. 5. If you like art galleries you should go to ___ National Gallery and ___ Tate. 6. Are you going to stay at ___ St. Marcus Hotel? – No, at ___ Plaza Hotel. 7. If you want to do shopping, go to ___ Oxford Street or ___ Bond Street. 8. My train leaves from ___Waterloo Station at 2.10 a.m.

Plural of Uncountable Nouns

a bar of	soap/chocolate
a bit of	information
a block of	ice
a breath of	air
a carton of	milk
a clap of	thunder
a flash of	lightening
a grain of	salt
a loaf of	bread
a lump of	sugar
a piece of	advice/luggage/music/cake
a puff of	smoke
a sheet of	paper
a slice of	cheese/sausage
a spot of	rain
a strip of	cloth
a stroke of	luck
a sum of	money
a tube of	toothpaste/polish
an article of	furniture
an item of	clothing

Inside out

She turned this place inside out looking for her keys.

Up and out

Why are you still sleeping? You’ll be late. Up and out of bed now.

On and on

That record plays on and on. I wish they would change it.

In and out

We won’t stay long at the party; just a quick in and out.

To and fro

The dog ran to and fro across the lawn.

For and against

Give me the arguments for and against this case.

Down and out

Nobody loves you when you haven’t got any money and you’re down and out.

8. ‘round about

I dropped my keys in the sand ‘round about here somewhere, but I don’t know exactly where.

THE VERB – Present Forms: Level B

	1	2	3	4
	Present Simple	Present Cont.	Present Perfect	Present Perf ect Cont.
a	Permanent situations or states She works as a nurse. He owns a large shop.	Temporary situations They are staying at the Park Hotel at present.	Recently completed actions She has tided her room (She has finished tiding her room. You can see it is tidy now – evidence in the present)	Actions started in the past and continuing up to the present He’s been writing a letter for two hours. (He started two hours ago and he’s still writing it.)
b	Repeated/habitual actions (especially with frequency adverbs: often, usually, etc) I usually get up at 7.30.	Actions happening at or around the moment of speaking She is looking for a better job.	Actions which happened at an unstated past time and are connected with the present He has lost his keys. (He is still looking for them.)	Past action of certain duration having visible results or effects in the present She’s been crying. (Her eyes are red.)
c	Permanent truths or laws of nature Money doesn’t buy happiness. Water freezes at 0°C.	Repeated actions with “always” expressing annoyance or criticism She’s always interrupting me!	Personal experiences/changes which have happened I’ve lost 10 kilos.	Actions expressing anger, irritation, annoyance, explanations or criticism Who has been using my toothbrush? (annoyance)
d	Timetables/programmes (future meaning) The plane leaves at 6.10.	Fixed arrangements in the near future The Browns are visiting us tonight (It’s all arranged.)	Emphasis on number She’s written three letters since this morning.	Emphasis on duration (usually with for, since, how long) She’s been calling on clients since this morning.
e	Reviews/sports commentaries/dramatic narrative Meryl Streep acts brilliantly in this film.	Changing or developing situations His English is getting better.

Time expressions used with:

Present Simple	every day/week/month/year, usually, often, always, rarely, never, sometimes, in the morning/evening/afternoon, at night, on Mondays, etc
Present Cont.	now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, tonight, always, still
Present Perfect	just, ever, never, already, yet, always, how long, so far, recently, since, for, today, this week/month, etc
Present Perfect Cont.	how long, for, since

NOTE: live, feel and work can be used either in the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous with no difference in meaning.

I’ve been leaving / I’ve lived in Rome for a year.

State verbs

Verbs describing a permanent state (state verbs) do not normally have continuous forms. These are:

(1) verbs of the senses: see, hear, smell, feel, taste, etc

(2) verbs of opinion: agree, believe, consider, etc

(3) verbs of emotions: feel, forgive, hate, like, love, etc

(4) other verbs: appear (=seem), be, belong, fit, have (possess), know, look (=appear), need, prefer, require, want, weigh, wish, etc

The verbs look, watch, listen express deliberate actions and can be used in continuous forms.

See, smell, taste, feel, think, have, etc have continuous forms but there is a difference in meaning:

verb	STATE	ACTION
think	I think she is rich.	I’m thinking about your plan.
taste	The milk tastes awful.	He is tasting the sauce; it might need some salt.
have	He has a pet dog.	He’s having dinner now.
feel	This cloth feels like velvet.	She’s feeling her way in the dark.
see	I see you are in trouble.	I’m seeing my lawyer tonight.
smell	The kitchen smells of burnt meat.	Why are you smelling your food?
come	He comes from Spain.	He’s coming from Spain.
love	I love holidays.	I’m loving this holiday.
look	Your hair looks great.	She is looking at some old photographs.
weigh	The baby weighs 5 kilos.	I’m weighing myself on my new scales.
be	Ann is very tall.	Ann is being very kind to me these days.

Философия жизни

Жаркий летний день в Древнем Риме. Философ пересекает Тибр в маленькой лодочке. Во время переправы он спрашивает у лодочника: «Ты когда-нибудь слышал о философии?» «Нет, — отвечает лодочник, — я никогда об этом не слышал. Что это такое?» «Мне очень тебя жаль, — отвечает ученый человек, — ты потерял четверть своей жизни, потому что это очень интересная наука!» Они плывут уже несколько минут, как философ опять спрашивает лодочника: «А ты слышал об астрономии, когда учился в школе?» «Нет, я закончил школу много лет назад и все забыл. Я ничего не помню», — отвечает лодочник. На это философ опять говорит, что ему очень жаль лодочника, и что тот потерял вторую четверть своей жизни. Проходит несколько минут, и философ опять задает лодочнику вопрос: «А слышал ли ты когда-нибудь об алгебре?» И лодочнику приходится сознаться, что он никогда ничего об этом не слышал. «В этом случае ты потерял третью четверть своей жизни», — говорит ученый. В этот момент лодка налетает на большой камень. Лодочник вскакивает и кричит: «Ты когда-нибудь учился плавать?» «Нет, — отвечает ученый, — я никогда не изучал плавание». Лодочник грустно объясняет философу, что тот потерял всю свою жизнь, так как лодка тонет.

Мораль: В повседневной жизни практические умения бывают иногда более необходимы, чем знание многих наук.

THE VERB – Past Forms: Level B

	1	2	3	4
	Past Simple	Past Continuous	Past Perfect	Past Perfect Cont.
a	Past actions which happened one after the other She sealed the letter, put a stamp on it and posted it.	Action in the middle of happening at a stated past time He was playing tennis at 3.15 yesterday.	Past action which occurred before another action or before a state past time He had left by the time I got there. (or by 7.15)	Action continuing over a period up to a specific time in the past She had been working as a clerk for 7 years before she resigned.
b	Past habit or state He used to go / went to school on foot. Complete action or event which happened at a stated past time She called an hour ago.	Past action in progress interrupted by another past action. The longer action is in the Past Continuous, the shorter action is in the Past Simple. While I was getting dressed the bell rang.	Completed past action which had visible results in the past She was sad because she had failed the test.	Past action of certain duration which had visible results in the past They were wet because they had been walking in the rain.
c	Action which happened at a definite past time although the time is not mentioned. This action is not connected with the present. Oscar Wilde wrote a lot of poems. (O. Wilde is now dead; he won’t write again - period of time is now finished.)	Two or more simultaneous actions While I was reading a book Sam was watching TV. Background description to events in a story She was swimming. The sun was shining…	The Past Perfect is the past equivalent of the Present Perfect He couldn’t find his watch. He had lost it. (He can’t find his watch. He has lost it.)	The Past Perfect Continuous is the past equivalent of the Present Perfect continuous She went to the doctor. Her leg had been aching for two days. (She is going to the doctor. Her leg has been aching for two days.)

Time expressions used with:

Past Simple	yesterday, last week, (how long) ago, then, when, in 1990, etc
Past Continuous	while, when, as, etc.
Past Perfect	just, ever, never, already, after, yet, by the time, by, so far, since, for, etc
Past Perfect Cont.	for, since

Used to, would, be/get used to -We use used to or would + infinitive to talk about something that happened regularly in the past: I used to go jogging every day until I hurt my knee. He would stay up all night when he was younger. -We use used to (not would) for a situation that was true in the past: She used to have long hair. I didn’t use to like pop music. Where did they use to live? -We use be/get used to + noun/pronoun/-ing to talk about something that seems or becomes normal because we’ve experienced it before: We don’t mind the cold weather. We ’ re used to it. (= It’s normal for us.) You’ll soon get used to wearing glasses. (= It will become normal for you.)

Future-in the-Past

If the Main clause (главное предложение) is in the past tense, then in Subordinate clause (придаточное предложение) instead of Future tenses you should use Future-in-the-Past Tenses. (Shall / will → should / would)

Tenses of the Infinitive

Tenses of the - ing form

Active Voice Passive Voice Active Voice Passive Voice Present (to) offer (to) be offered offering being offered Present Cont. (to) be offering - - - Perfect (to) have offered (to) have been offered having offered having been offered Perfect Cont. (to) have been offering - - -

· The Present Infinitive refers to the present or future.

I’d like to go for a walk.

· The Present Continuous Infinitive is used with appear, claim, happen, pretend, seem, must, can’t, should, would, etc to describe an action happening now.

He must be working in the garden now.

· The Perfect Infinitive is used with appear, happen, pretend, seem, etc to show that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb.

He claims to have met the Queen. (First he met the Queen, then he claimed he had met her.)

It is also used with modal verbs should, would, etc.

· The Perfect Continuous Infinitive is used with appear, seem, pretend, etc to put emphasis on the duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the verb.

She looks tired. She seems to have been working all morning.

It is also used with modal verbs.

· The Present Gerund (- ing form) refers to the present or future.

She enjoys dancing.

· The Perfect Gerund (- ing form) shows that the action of the gerund has happened before the action of the verb. We can use the Present Gerund instead of the Perfect Gerund without a difference in meaning.

He denied having stolen the money. OR He denied stealing the money.

The -to- infinitive is used:

1. to express purpose

She went out to buy some milk.

2. after certain verbs (advise, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, promise, refuse, etc)

He promised to be back at 10 o clock.

3. after certain adjectives (angry, happy, glad, etc)

She was glad to see him.

4. after question words (where, how, what, who, which, BUT not after “ why ”)

Has she told you where to meet them?

But: I don’t know why he left so early.

5. after: would like/ would love/ would prefer (to express specific preference)

I’d love to go for a walk.

6. after nouns

It’s a pleasure to work with you.

7. after too/enough constructions

He is too short to reach the top shelf.

He isn’t tall enough to reach the top shelf.

8. with it + be + adjective (+ of + object)

It was nice of him to remember my birthday.

9. with “ only ” to express unsatisfactory result

He called me only to say that he would be late.

The infinitive without -to- is used:

1. after modal verbs (must, can, will etc)

You must be back at 12 o clock.

2. after: had better/ would rather

I’d rather have stayed in last night.

3. after: make/let/see/ hear/feel + object

Mum let me watch TV. I made him apologise.

BUT: in the passive form: be made/ be heard/ be seen + to-infinitive

He was made to apologise.

Note: help is followed by a -to-infinitive or an infinitive without -to-

She helped me (to) wash the dishes.

The -ing form is used:

1. as a noun

Eating vegetables is good for your health.

2. after certain verbs: (admit (to), avoid, consider, continue, delay, deny, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish, forgive, imagine, involve, keep (=continue), look forward to, mention mind, miss, object to, postpone, practice, prevent, report, resist, risk, save, stand, suggest, understand, etc)

He admitted (to) stealing the painting.

3. after: love, like, dislike, hate, enjoy, prefer (to express general preference)

He likes cooking (in general).

Note: like + to infinitive = it’s a good idea; it’s useful

I like to eat a healthy breakfast. (specific preference)

4. after: I’m busy, it’s no use, it’s (no) good, it’s (not) worth, what’s the use of, can’t help, there’s no point in, can’t stand, be/get used to, be/get accustomed to, have difficulty (in)

It’s no use complaining.

5. after: go for physical activities

They go skiing every winter.

6. after: spend/waste time

He wasted his time playing video games.

7. after prepositions

He entered without knocking at the door.

8. after: see, hear, listen, watch to express an incomplete action, an action in progress or a long action

I saw Kate painting the kitchen. (I saw Kate in the middle of painting.)

BUT: see, hear, listen, watch + infinitive without -to- – to express a complete action, something that one saw or heard from beginning to end.

I watched Kate paint the kitchen. It took her two hours. (I saw the whole action from beginning to end.)

NOTE: If two infinitives are joined by “and”, the -to- of the second infinitive can be omitted.

I want to eat something and have a rest.

Comment on the choice.

1. Your best friend failed a very important exam because she didn’t study. What do you say to her? - You should/ ought to/might/could have studied for the exam…

2. Dan borrowed your favorite CD without asking you. You want him to ask you next time. What do you say to him?

3. One of your classmates misses the school bus every morning because he gets up late. What do you say to him?

4. Your younger sister took your scarf and didn’t put it back in the right place. You want her to replace it next time. What do you say to her?

5. You arranged to meet your friend at 6 o’clock. He came at 7 o’clock but he didn’t call you to tell you he’d be late. What do you say to him?

6. Fred lost his keys in town yesterday. He didn’t report it to the police. What do you say to him?

EXERCISE 6. Fill the spaces with needn’t have or didn’t have to and the correct form of the verb in brackets, as in the example. Comment on the usage.

1. I had been to the station many times before so I didn’t have to use (use) a map to find it. 2. You … (come) here to tell me. You could have called me instead. 3. You didn’t go abroad for our holidays last year so we … (take) our passports with us. 4. I cooked dinner last night, so we … (order) a takeaway. 5. You … (wash) your suit. I would have taken it to the dry-cleaner’s for you. 6. I … (buy) anything from the supermarket so I went straight home after work. 7. My brother told me he was taking two sleeping bags so I … (pack) one for myself. 8. You … (call) from a phone box. You could have used my mobile phone instead. 9. I … (send) Tom’s birthday card because I knew I was going to see him on his birthday.

EXERCISE 7. Use will / might / can’t / may / must / shall / would / should to complete these sentences.

1) – Could you lend me 10$? – Of course I ___.

2) They ___ have been held up in the traffic.

3) You ___ be tired! You’ve been asleep all morning.

4) You ___ not smoke in here.

5) Nothing on TV! I ___ go to the cinema.

6) ___ I carry that bag for you?

7) ___ you type this for me, please.

8) I ___ have told you but I forgot.

9) I’m free tomorrow. I ___ drive you to the airport.

10) You ___ be exhausted after all that work.

TYPE 0

General truth

If + Present Simple Present Simple Express smth which is always true

If you heat water, it boils.

TYPE 1

Real present

If + any Present form Future/Imperative can/may/might/should + bare inf. Real – likely to happen in the present or future

If he leaves early, he’ ll be on time for the meeting. If you are tired, go to bed. If you have finished your work, we can go for a walk.

TYPE 2

Unreal present

If + Past Simple or Past Continuous Would/could/might + bare infinitive Unreal- unlikely to happen in the present or future; also used to give advice

If I saw a ghost, I would run away. (not likely to happen) If I were you, I wouldn’t go out with him.(advice)

TYPE 3

Unreal past

If + Past Perfect or Past Perfect Cont. Would/could/might + have + V3/past participle Unreal situation in the past; also used to express regrets and criticism

If I had locked the car, it wouldn’t have been stolen. (regret)

If he had behaved well, the teacher wouldn’t have punished him. (criticism)

When the if-clause is before the main clause, we separate the two clauses with a comma.

If you come early, we can go for a walk. BUT: We can go for a walk if you come early.

We do not normally use will, would, or should in an If –clause.

If you hurry, you will catch the train.

We can use will/would in Type 1 Conditionals to make a request or to express insistence or annoyance, and should when we are less sure about a possibility.