Microsoft Trial Testimony Ends

By TED BRIDIS
June 24, 1999

WASHINGTON (AP) - Testimony ended Thursday on the 76th day of the landmark Microsoft antitrust trial, a courtroom drama that offered a unique look at the nation's booming high-tech industry and the software giant that dominates it.

The trial's final witness, economist Richard Schmalensee of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, argued forcefully that Microsoft Corp., with 1998 revenues of $14.5 billion, isn't the entrenched monopolist that illegally wields extraordinary influence, as portrayed by the government.

``Microsoft was clearly engaged in a broad pattern of illegal behavior,'' Assistant U.S. Attorney General Joel Klein told reporters on the courthouse steps. ``They used every trick in the monopolist's book.... You name it, they did it.''

Stephen Houck of the New York attorney general's office, the lead lawyer for the 19 states suing Microsoft with the Justice Department, described the company to reporters as a ``malignant despot'' and said its behavior ``will justify a very significant remedy.''

Schmalensee buttressed his claim that Microsoft isn't a monopoly by describing a raft of competitors on the company's horizon - the $10 billion alliance between rivals America Online Inc. and Netscape Communications Corp., handheld computers and a new generation of software running across high-speed Internet connections.

But in what became routine during the trial, the company's witness was challenged again Thursday in a piercing cross-examination by David Boies, the Justice Department lawyer whose tough questioning has sometimes appeared to inflict upon Microsoft the courtroom equivalent of a computer system meltdown.

Boies produced handwritten notes from Microsoft's files quoting billionaire Chairman Bill Gates - ``BillG'' - in December about the prospective threat from the new AOL-Netscape alliance, announced just weeks earlier along with an important agreement with Sun Microsystems Inc.

``AOL doesn't have it in their genes to attack us in the platform space,'' said Gates, his comments outside the courtroom once again seemingly undermining what his lawyers were telling the judge in court. ``If you want to lose sleep tonight, worry about Sun.''

Schmalensee said he assessed the AOL threat from secret documents produced by America Online.

And Microsoft lawyer Michael Lacovara cited a news report - published just hours earlier - that AOL was in early negotiations Thursday with a small company that makes computers that don't use Microsoft's dominant Windows operating system.

``I can't say you haven't brought me current'' on industry developments, said U.S. District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson.

Although Thursday was the last day of testimony, the judge may not issue a final verdict until early next year. And the case could wind through appeals courts for years.

Since the trial started, the sides have met at least twice in unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a settlement. Future talks are anticipated this summer.

Using tens of thousands of pages of e-mails and other documents, the government sought to portray Microsoft as a cunning industry titan that illegally used its heft to undermine competing technologies and to discourage other companies from supporting its rivals.

Microsoft responded that it competes roughly, but fairly, in a bare-knuckles industry with billions at stake. And it returned again and again to its argument that the government has failed to prove its actions hurt consumers.

Evidence seemed to bear out both views, and also provided an intriguing - and sometimes embarrassing - glimpse beneath the veneer of the flashy high-tech industry. E-mails, handwritten notes from meetings and other paperwork revealed a take-no-prisoners business world where alliances are proposed, sealed and dissolved.

The co-founder of Netscape, Marc Andreessen, proposed combining forces with AOL in 1995 to ``kick the (expletive) out of the beast from Redmond,'' a reference to Microsoft's headquarters in Washington state. Sun's top executive, Scott McNealy, told employees to use his company's Java technology to ``charge, kill HP (Hewlett-Packard), IBM, Msft and Apple all at once.''

Gates complained in e-mail that IBM executives were ``rabid Java backers,'' and in another message asked an employee bluntly: ``Do we have a clear plan on what we want Apple to do to undermine Sun?''

And when AOL's chairman, Steve Case, wrote to Netscape's James Barksdale about an alliance in 1995, the two portrayed themselves as Allied powers during World War II.

Microsoft, of course, was the Axis.

``If we fight them together we can win, and what a victory it would be - the enemy of my enemy is my friend,'' Barksdale wrote to Case, calling him ``Franklin D.'' Barksdale was ``Josef Stalin,'' but he complained, ``I don't like playing this part.''

Although more than two dozen experts and executives took the stand, the witness most likely to be remembered never set foot in the courthouse: Bill Gates.

Gates - shown by government lawyers in a videotape of a pre-trial deposition last summer - appeared so forgetful and evasive in that tape that even the judge told lawyers in a private meeting, ``I think it's evident to every spectator that, for whatever reasons, in many respects Mr. Gates has not been particularly responsive.''

With testimony finished, lawyers left the courthouse blocks from the U.S. Capitol to rest and to submit their written arguments - expected to span hundreds of pages each - on Aug. 10 in the next phase of the trial.

C

How To Bathe A Cat

(Note: Jeffery LaCroix is a veterinarian with an office in Wilmington. He writes a column for the Morning Star called "From Paws to Tails."

Here is his response to a letter regarding bathing a cat:)

Dear Dr. LaCroix: I've heard that cats never have to be bathed, and that they have some sort of special enzyme in their saliva that keeps them clean. This doesn't sound believable to me because there are definite "kitty" odors on my couch and dirty cat paw prints on our white hearth. Is this true about the saliva? If we do decide to give "Nice Kitty" a bath, how do we do that? - NSP, Wilmington

Dear NSP: Fortunately for you, several years ago a client gave me a written set of instructions about cat bathing which I am privileged to share with you:

Cat Bathing As A Martial Art

A. Know that although the cat has the advantage of quickness and lack of concern for human life, you have the advantage of strength.

Capitalize on that advantage by selecting the battlefield. Don't try to bathe him in an open area where he can force you to chase him. Pick a very small bathroom.

If your bathroom is more than four feet square, I recommend that you get in the tub with the cat and close the sliding -glass doors as if you were about to take a shower. (A simple shower curtain will not do. A berserk cat can shred a three-ply rubber shower curtain quicker than a politician can shift positions.)

B. Know that a cat has claws and will not hesitate to remove all the skin from your body. Your advantage here is that you are smart and know how to dress to protect yourself.

I recommend canvas overalls tucked into high-top construction boots, a pair of steel-mesh gloves, an army helmet, a hockey face-mask, and a long-sleeved flak jacket.

C. Use the element of surprise. Pick up your cat nonchalantly, as if to simply carry him to his supper dish. (Cats will not usually notice your strange attire. They have little or no interest in fashion as a rule.)

D. Once you are inside the bathroom, speed is essential to survival. In a single liquid motion, shut the bathroom door, step into the tub enclosure, slide the glass door shut, dip the cat in the water and squirt him with shampoo.

You have begun one of the wildest 45 seconds of your life.

E. Cats have no handles. Add the fact that he now has soapy fur, and the problem is radically compounded.

Do not expect to hold on to him for more than two or three seconds at a time. When you have him, however, you must remember to give him another squirt of shampoo and rub like crazy.

He'll then spring free and fall back into the water, thereby rinsing himself off. (The national record for cats is three latherings, so don't expect too much.)

F. Next, the cat must be dried. Novice cat bathers always assume this part will be the most difficult, for humans generally are worn out at this point and the cat is just getting really determined.

In fact, the drying is simple compared with what you have just been through.

That's because by now the cat is semi-permanently affixed to your right leg.

You simply pop the drain plug with your foot, reach for your towel and wait. (Occasionally, however, the cat will end up clinging to the top of your army helmet. If this happens, the best thing you can do is to shake him loose and to encourage him toward your leg.) After all the water is drained from the tub, it is a simple matter to just reach down and dry the cat.

In a few days the cat will relax enough to be removed from your leg. He will usually have nothing to say for about three weeks and will spend a lot of time sitting with his back to you.

He might even become psychoceramic and develop the fixed stare of a plaster figurine.

You will be tempted to assume he is angry.

This isn't usually the case.

As a rule he is simply plotting ways to get through your defenses and injure you for life the next time you decide to give him a bath.

But at least now he smells a lot better.

Funny Signs in Great Britain: (but could be anywhere)

1. IN A LAUNDROMAT: Automatic washing machines. Please remove all your clothes when the light goes out.

2. IN A LONDON DEPARTMENT STORE: Bargain Basement Upstairs

3. IN AN OFFICE: Would the person who took the step ladder yesterday kindly bring it back or further steps will be taken.

4. IN ANOTHER OFFICE: After the tea break, staff should empty the teapot and stand upside down on the draining board.

5. ON A CHURCH DOOR: This is the gate of Heaven. Enter ye all by this door. (This door is kept locked because of the draft. Please use side entrance)

6. OUTSIDE A SECOND-HAND SHOP: We exchange anything - bicycles, washing machines etc. Why not bring your wife along and get a wonderful bargain.

7. QUICKSAND WARNING: Quicksand. Any person passing this point will be drowned. By order of the District Council.

8. NOTICE IN A DRY CLEANER'S WINDOW: Anyone leaving their garments here for more than 30 days will be disposed of.

9. IN A HEALTH FOOD SHOP WINDOW: Closed due to illness.

10. SPOTTED IN A SAFARI PARK: Elephants Please Stay In Your Car

11. SEEN DURING A CONFERENCE: For anyone who has children and doesn't know it, there is a day care on the first floor.

12. NOTICE IN A FIELD: The farmer allows walkers to cross the field for free, but the bull charges.

13. MESSAGE ON A LEAFLET: If you cannot read, this leaflet will tell you how to get lessons.

14. ON A REPAIR SHOP DOOR: We can repair anything (Please knock hard on the door - the bell doesn't work)

15. SPOTTED IN A TOILET IN A LONDON OFFICE BLOCK: Toilet out of order. Please use floor below.

Funny Signs in Great Britain: (but could be anywhere)

1. IN A LAUNDROMAT: Automatic washing machines. Please remove all your clothes when the light goes out.

2. IN A LONDON DEPARTMENT STORE: Bargain Basement Upstairs

3. IN AN OFFICE: Would the person who took the step ladder yesterday kindly bring it back or further steps will be taken.

4. IN ANOTHER OFFICE: After the tea break, staff should empty the teapot and stand upside down on the draining board.

5. ON A CHURCH DOOR: This is the gate of Heaven. Enter ye all by this door. (This door is kept locked because of the draft. Please use side entrance.

6. OUTSIDE A SECOND-HAND SHOP: We exchange anything - bicycles, washing machines etc. Why not bring your wife along and get a wonderful bargain.

7. QUICKSAND WARNING: Quicksand. Any person passing this point will be drowned. By order of the District Council.

8. NOTICE IN A DRY CLEANER'S WINDOW: Anyone leaving their garments here for more than 30 days will be disposed of.

9. IN A HEALTH FOOD SHOP WINDOW: Closed due to illness.

10. SPOTTED IN A SAFARI PARK: Elephants Please Stay In Your Car

11. SEEN DURING A CONFERENCE: For anyone who has children and doesn't know it, there is a day care on the first floor.

12. NOTICE IN A FIELD: The farmer allows walkers to cross the field for free, but the bull charges.

13. MESSAGE ON A LEAFLET: If you cannot read, this leaflet will tell you how to get lessons.

14. ON A REPAIR SHOP DOOR: We can repair anything (Please knock hard on the door - the bell doesn't work)

15. SPOTTED IN A TOILET IN A LONDON OFFICE BLOCK: Toilet out of order. Please use floor below.

 

II-5	Заместители существительного

В качестве заместителей ранее встречавшихся в те существительных (во избежание повторения) употребляются следующие местоимения:

that (those - для множественного числа).

one (ones - для множественного числа).

Рассмотрим их подробнее.

II-5.1

That (those)

That (those) употребляется для замены существительного, которое при повторении стояло бы с определенным артиклем:

No question is more important now than that of preserving durable peace.

That (those) в этих случаях переводится обычно тем существительным, которое оно заменяет:

В настоящее время нет более важного вопроса, чем вопрос о сохранении мира.

The properties of short waves are different from those of long waves.

Свойства коротких волн отличаются от свойствдлинных волн.

 

II-5.2

One (Ones)

В функции заместителя ранее встречавшегося в тексте исчисляемого существительного, которое при повторении имело бы неопределенный артикль, употребляется one:

A life raft made of rubber is more convenient than one made of wood.

При переводе в таких случаях one передается тем существительным, которое оно заменяет; чаще, однако, one совсем не переводится:

Резиновый спасательный плот более удобен, чем спасательный плот, сделанный из дерева.

или

Резиновый спасательный плот более удобен, чем деревянный.

Если заменяемое существительное при повторении сопровождалось бы определенным артиклем, то перед one ставится определенный артикль. В этом случае заменитель the one выделяет один предмет из ряда других:

Then he showed me another telegram, the one received from the expedition.

Затем он показал мне другую телеграмму; ту (телеграмму), которая была получена от экспедиции.

 

Упражнения

1.Переведите следующие предложения:

1. Our ideologists linked the western pragmatic approach with that of the mysticism of the East. 2. The forces of peace are more powerful than those of war. 3. The industrial output of Austria in 1992 was nearly 10 per cent below that of 1991. 4. In 1951 the per hectare cotton yield in the USSR was nearly twice as great as that of Egypt. 5. The wages of the Europeans in South Africa are usually ten times as great as those of Africans. 6. One of Korea's acutest problems for centuries was that of water for irrigation purposes. 7. The first German edition of the Communist Manifesto was published in 1848; the first Russian one, early in the sixties.

1. An inert gas is the one, which does not enter into chemical combination with other substances. 2. The most distant planets as well as the nearest ones are beyond the atmosphere of the earth. 3. The vegetation of valleys is richer than that of mountains. 4. The earliest squatting places of man in our country are those discovered in the Caucasus and in the Crimea. 5. Every useful object such as iron, paper, etc., may be regarded from a twofold outlook, that of quality and that of quantity. 6. A pure substance is the one containing no admixtures. 7. This motherboard is much better than the one you showed me last time. 8. Markoni repeated Popov's experiments in London and built a radio apparatus, which was an exact replica of the Russian one.

II. Переведите текст, отметив в нем местоимения - заместители существительного:

GENERATION OF STEAM

Steam is generated in a boiler by the application of heat to some part, which is in close contact with the water it contains. The heat raises the temperature of the water to boiling point and eventually produces steam,

Sensible heat is the one added to the water during the period in which the temperature is rising and while no steam is being generated.

When boiling point is reached, the heat necessary to convert the water into steam is latent one and cannot be measured by the thermometer. Steam heated to a temperature above that which is necessary to make water boil at the given pressure is termed superheated steam.

The total heat of superheated steam is the one required superheating to the desired temperature, plus to total heat of dry saturated steam above 32° F, and at the superheated pressure.

When steam is generated in a closed vessel, the water and steam cannot be under the influence of the atmosphere, and therefore the pressure shown by the boiler is the pressure, which differs from the absolute pressure by an amount equal to atmospheric pressure.

For practical purposes atmospheric pressure is taken as 15 lbs. per sq. in., and therefore the readings for the absolute pressure of steam in a boiler are 15 lbs. greater than those shown by the pressure gauge.

Практикум

А

STAR MATERIAL DISCOVERED IN SOUTH PACIFIC.
Interstellar matter formed in a supernova has been discovered on Earth now for the first time. Light coming to Earth from distant supernovas is recorded all the time. Likewise, dozen or so neutrinos from nearby Supernova 1987A have been detected. But atoms from supernovas are a different matter. In a sense, all the heavy atoms on Earth have been processed through or created in supernovas long ago and far away. But now comes evidence of atoms from a supernova that may have been deposited here only a few million years ago. An interdisciplinary team of German
scientists from the Technical University of Munich, the Max-Planck Institute (Garching), and the
University of Kiel have identified radioactive iron-60 atoms in an ocean sediment layer from a seafloor site in the South Pacific.
First, several sediment layers were dated, and only then were samples scrutinized with accelerator mass spectroscopy, needed to spot the faintly present iron. The half-life of Fe-60 (only 1.5 million years), the levels detected in the sample, and the lack of terrestrial sources point to a relatively nearby and recent supernova as the origin. How recent? Several million years. How close? An estimated 90-180 light years. If the supernova had been any closer than this, it might have had an impact on Earth's climate. The researchers believe traces of the Fe-60 layer (like the iridium layer
that signaled the coming of a dinosaur-killing meteor 65 million years ago) should be found worldwide but have not yet been able to search for it.

ELECTROPHOSPHORESCENCE GETS THE GREEN LIGHT.
In organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) electrical energy injected onto a host molecule is often transferred to luminescent "guest" molecules which then light up. Using this approach, OLEDs have been fabricated to emit colors ranging from violet to the near infrared and have been incorporated into displays already on the market. So far OLED researchers have concentrated on
maximizing fluorescent emission of light. Fluorescent OLEDs use a process whereby the energy transfer occurs between a singlet-state (total spin of zero) host molecule and a singlet-state guest
molecule. Phosphorescent OLEDs, by contrast, transfer energy from a triplet-state (total spin value of one) host to a triplet-state guest, which subsequently emits the energy as light. Phosphorescence is inherently a slower and less efficient process, but triplet states constitute the majority of electrically excited states, so putting them to work can increase the overall luminescence. This is exactly what scientists at Princeton and the University of Southern California have now done. Using both singlet and triplet states for producing green light, they have achieved quantum efficiencies (photons out divided by electrons in) of up to 8% and power efficiencies (optical power out divided by electrical power in) of up to 30 lumens/Watt. These high efficiencies are unprecedented and may have a great impact on display technology.

A RUDIMENTARY MUON MAP OF THE SKY has been carried out by the Soudan-2 detector, located deep in a Minnesota mine and built originally to look for proton decay. To be exact, Soudan records muons produced by incoming cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere. The muon imaging process clearly senses the shadow cast by the passing Moon, which temporarily blocks cosmic rays coming from that position in the sky.

B

HOT DOG!

What's more American than hot dogs? How 'bout a TV show about the food that's synonymous with summer and baseball.

Loyola University Chicago wienie experts Richard Bowen and Richard Fay will be featured later this month on a PBS program that answers such questions as ``What condiments really belong on tube steak?'' Fay and Bowen explain what makes a Chicago hot dog - a Vienna frank, onions, tomato, hot peppers, mustard, sweet relish and a pickle on a steamed bun.

Fay says in Chicago ``hot dogs are for adults''...and Bowen calls Chicago the ``hot dog capital of the universe.''

An indignant Nathan's patron disputes that...but that's to be expected from a New Yorker who insists on including sauerkraut.

THING WE DON'T UNDERSTAND

Federal prosecutors are denying a reputed mobster's claim that the government implanted a tracking device in his buttocks.

Vincent Marino was shot in the butt outside a nightclub in Revere, Massachusetts - north of Boston - in 1996. He alleges that during surgery, the bullet was replaced with a computer chip that allowed federal agents to electronically track him.

Marino - who's facing racketeering charges - claims he learned of the device when arresting Drug Enforcement Administration agents asked him to sign a form authorizing removal of the device.

The DEA agent says the comment was meant to be a joke.

Not laughing, Marino went to court...prompting a federal judge earlier this week to order the government to say whether the device is still in his backside.

In response, U-S Attorney Donald Stern says the DEA ``did not implant a tracking device in...Marino's buttocks.'' He adds, tongue-in-cheek - ``We cannot speak, however, for any extraterrestrial beings.''

Marino's attorney, Robert Sheketoff, isn't satisfied and is asking for a MRI to prove there's no device in his client's behind.

IS IT "LAY" DOWN OR "LIE" DOWN?
You lie down...but you lay other things down. "Now I lay me down to sleep" is a poetic version of "Now I lie down to sleep." What makes this complicated is that the past tense of lie is lay - "I lay down earlier so I'm refreshed now." The past tense of lay is laid. Whew! Now YOU probably want to lie down awhile.

C

Traditional means of support eroded

Tomorrow, the G7 leaders gather to agree a deal to cut debt. As part of the Guardian's continuing campaign, we look at how Africans help themselves.

Thursday June 17, 1999

Alongside the story of famine, war and the economics of globalisation is a story, which gets much less, publicity: how Africans look after themselves.

Sometimes it is easy to lose sight in all the talk about aid that Africans do far more to improve their lives and those of their children than the West will ever do. This has been no easy task in the late 20th century, as population growth and environmental degradation have disrupted the traditional support systems.

Just staying alive is becoming an act of immense resourcefulness, says Kevin Watkins of Oxfam. He argues that we are witnessing in sub-Saharan Africa the collapse of the nation state's ability to provide for the welfare, health and education of its people.

Big changes in the way people cope with economic stress are emerging, report the development agencies, academic researchers and grassroots groups. People think of poverty in terms of subsistence farming and the landless, but increasingly the poor live in cities and are economically inactive.

It is the disabled, the elderly, the HIV orphans, the strangers, and the women who are seriously at risk and dependent. In the past, these people would have been looked after by traditional sharing and family support systems.

These are now breaking down as the global economy and the impact of debt and migration widens the social faultiness between religious, social or tribal groups. As human, environmental or social resources become scarcer, so conflicts between groups deepen.

Life in rural areas was relatively egalitarian, but now, say researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, there are increasing differences in wealth between individuals, communities and areas.

Extended families used to meet school fees; people could borrow from richer members in the family. One salaried job might support 15 people at school. In villages it is not possible, or only at extreme cost, to take on those responsibilities any more. Even those who have done reasonably well in the past decade report that life is more complex rather than better.

Structural adjustment and indebtedness is also leading to the growing monetarisation of society, says Cecilia Tacoli of the International Institute for Environment and Development. For a short period after decolonisation, she says, health, welfare and education was mostly free, but it is now a condition of the loans which governments take that people contribute.

"People need more cash today to survive. There are fewer and fewer subsidies for the public. This is changing traditional relationships between people," she says.

Oxfam reports that it is the urban poor who are being hit first and hardest because they do not produce food and a different set of social structures is emerging in towns.

"Families are becoming more nuclear. The mother might be working in a house, the daughter begging, the father doing something else. People are diversifying the way they live. They cannot depend on their relatives so much," Mr. Watkins added.

Migration is becoming an important "coping" mechanism, with more people moving greater distances in search of work and cash. Permanent migration is continuing between the countryside and the cities, says Ms Tacoli. Young men have traditionally migrated for seasonal work, but now they are moving to distant industrial farms or taking their chances and joining free-for-all mineral rushes.

Long absence from home puts stress on traditional family structures and cuts a whole generation off from decision making in communities. Young women, too, are beginning to migrate on their own, Ms Tacoli says, especially to tourist areas. But because they now have money and a voice, she says, they are questioning ownership of land in their villages. "It is a time of great change."

But the migration is also going into reverse, as political instability and increasing criminality in towns are leading people to invest back in their villages. "We are finding in many places in South Africa that people want to make sure they have alternatives in case things get really bad," Ms Tacoli says.

What has impressed researchers in recent decades is the growth of resourceful grassroots organisations such as the community schools movement in Zambia where some of the poorest people are clubbing together to put up a structure and selling goods to pay a graduate to teach numeracy and literacy. Or the campaign for universal primary education in Ghana.

The kind of micro-credit schemes pioneered by the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh have proliferated all over Africa. Aid agencies have traditionally supported such initiatives, but they are finally also being taken seriously by multilateral institutions, in particular the World Bank, which now claims in a remarkable policy shift over the last few years that change is only possible with the active participation of those it is to affect.

D

This is supposedly a true story from a recent Defence Science Lectures Series, as related by the head of the Australian DSTO's Land Operations/Simulation division.

They'd been working on some really nifty virtual reality simulators, the case in point being to incorporate Armed Reconnaissance Helicopters into exercises (from the data fusion point of view). Most of the people they employ on this sort of thing are ex- (or future) computer game programmers. Anyway, as part of the reality parameters, they include things like trees and animals. For the Australian simulation they included kangaroos. In particular, they had to model kangaroo movements and reactions to helicopters (since hordes of disturbed kangaroos might well give away a helicopter's position).

Being good programmers, they just stole some code (which was originally used to model infantry detachment reactions under the same stimuli), and changed the mapped icons, the speed parameters, etc. The first time they demonstrated this to some visiting Americans, the hotshot pilots decided to get "down and dirty" with the virtual kangaroos. So, they buzzed them and watched them scatter. The visiting Americans nod appreciatively... then gape as the kangaroos duck around a hill, and launch about two dozen Stinger missiles at the hapless helicopter. The programmers looked rather embarrassed at forgetting to remove *that* part of the infantry coding... and Americans leave muttering comments about not wanting to mess with the Aussie wildlife....

As an addendum, simulator pilots from that point onwards avoided kangaroos like the plague, just like they were meant to do in the first place....

 

 

В машине ночью после 10 часов перевода. Ты чего молчишь? Устал, товарищ генерал. С чего это ты устал?! Ты же ничего не делал, – только говорил! Из личного опыта

 

III	Лексические вопросы перевода
III-1	Фразеология

То, или иное понятие в языке не всегда передается одним словом.

Нередко для этого используется словесный комплекс, представляющий собой определенное, более или менее устойчивое лексическое сочетание - так называемую фразеологическую единицу.

Такие фразеологические единицы могут выполнять функции различных частей речи, например:

существительного: угрызения совести; козел отпущения;

глагола: принимать меры; бить баклуши;

наречия: не покладая рук; очертя голову и т. д.

Нередко фразеологические единицы выступают как самостоятельные законченные речения, принимающие форму пословиц и поговорок:

попасть как кур во щи;

попасть из огня да в полымя и т. д.

Фразеологические единицы обладают различной степенью закрепленности своих компонентов; в некоторых из них составные части сохраняют большую или меньшую семантическую самостоятельность, в других же эта самостоятельность полностью утрачена, и все сочетание воспринимается как единый, неразложимый комплекс.

С этой точки зрения фразеологические единицы можно разделить на три категории: фразеологические сочетания; фразеологические единства; фразеологические сращения.

Рассмотрим каждую из этих категорий в отдельности и наметим основные приемы их перевода на русский язык.

III-1.1

Фразеологические сочетания

Фразеологическое сочетание является подвижным семантическим комплексом, компоненты которого сохраняют свое основное значение, но вступают в сочетание лишь с определенными словами:

играть роль

иметь значение

Нельзя произвольно изменить установившееся в языке сочетание, например:

играть значение

иметь роль

Вместе с тем фразеологическое сочетание не является застывшим комплексом и в некоторых случаях допускает синонимическую подстановку или замену:

обратить внимание

направить внимание

 

to win the victory
	одержать победу
to gain the victory
to achieve success
	добиться успеха
to attain success

Надо иметь в виду, что каждый язык обладает своими внутренними законами сочетаемости слов, вследствие чего составные элементы фразеологических сочетаний не всегда являются аналогичными в английском и русском языках:

to take steps	не брать,	а	предпринимать шаги
to pay attention	не платить,	а	обращать внимание
specific gravity	не специальный,	а	удельный вес
direct current	не прямой,	а	постоянный ток

Английский глагол to strike, например, в различных сочетаниях передается различными русскими глаголами:

to strike a match	чиркнуть спичкой
to strike the iron	ковать железо
to strike oil	найти (обнаружить) источник нефти
to strike hands	ударить по рукам
to strike the eye	броситься в глаза
to strike a flag	сдаться, капитулировать
to strike a mine	подорваться на мине, наскочить на мину
to strike a blow	нанести удар
to strike a bell	бить склянки

Наоборот - различные английские глаголы в разных сочетаниях могут передаваться одним русским глаголом:

to open a book	открыть книгу
to unveil a monument	открыть памятник
to discover America	открыть Америку
to reveal a secret	открыть секрет

Подводя итоги, можно установить, что значение фразеологического сочетания в целом, возможно вывести из значений составляющих его слов, которые отыскиваются в словаре обычным порядком.

При передаче значения данного сочетания на русском языке требуется найти адекватное выражение в соответствии с общепринятыми нормами русского литературного языка, при этом перевод может быть сделан двумя способами.

Словосочетанием:

They took necessary measures.

Они приняли необходимые меры.

Одним словом:

The reaction took place immediately.

Реакция произошла немедленно.

 

III-1.2

Фразеологические единства

Фразеологическое единство, в отличие от сочетания, представляет собой неподвижный синтаксический комплекс.

Общее значение единства (так же, как и фразеологического сочетания) мотивировано значением входящих в его состав слов, но оно не допускает ни подстановок, ни замен:

to show one's teeth	огрызнуться
to hit the mark	попасть в цель

Словарь, как правило, приводит значение фразеологического единства. Отыскивать его нужно по главному слову, несущему основную семантическую нагрузку, например:

Не can hardly make both ends meet.

Смысл этого выражения отыскивается по слову end:

Он с трудом сводит концы с концами.

В некоторых случаях словарь не дает значения единства; тогда следует перевести его дословно по составляющим словам, а затем подобрать русский аналог, например:

Не lives at the world's end.

Дословный перевод:

Он живет на конце мира.

Аналоги:

Он живет на краю света.

Он живет у черта на куличках.

She generally makes a mountain out of a molehill.

Дословный перевод:

Она обычно делает гору из кротовины.

Аналоги:

Она обычно сильно преувеличивает.

Она обычно делает из мухи слона.

Таким образом, можно установить следующее:

1) Значение фразеологического единства, как правило, дается словарем; отыскивание значения производится по слову, несущему во фразеологической группе основную семантическую нагрузку.

2) Если словарь не дает значения всего единства в целом, то установить его смысл можно, отыскивая в словаре значение каждого слова в отдельности, т. к. общий смысл фразеологического единства всегда мотивирован значением его компонентов.

3) При переводе фразеологического единства на русский язык могут встретиться два случая:

а) Мысль, выражаемая единством, передается и в русском языке с помощью эквивалента, иногда лишь с некоторыми незначительными отклонениями:

Не put an end to his troubles.	Он преодолел свои затруднения.
They met him half way in this question.	Они пошли ему навстречу в этом вопросе.
She rides her hobbyhorse.	Она села на своего любимого конька.

Перевод в таких случаях не представляет трудностей.

б) Мысль, выражаемая единством, передается в русском языке другими изобразительными средствами, т. к. в основе ее выражения лежит совершенно другой образ. Это особенно часто встречается при переводе пословиц и поговорок:

Сап the leopard change his spots?	Горбатого могила исправит.
East or west—home is best.	В гостях хорошо, а дома лучше.

Перевод в этих случаях делается с помощью аналога, т.e. выражения, не совпадающего по форме и по образному содержанию с выражением подлинника.

III-1.3

Фразеологические сращения (идиомы)

Фразеологическое сращение (идиома) представляет собой давно сложившийся в языке, обычно эмоционально окрашенный, застывший оборот речи.

Основной особенностью фразеологических сращений, в отличие от сочетаний и единств, является то, что общий смысл их не мотивирован значением составляющих элементов и не может быть из них выведен.

Слова, входящие в состав сращения, полностью утратили семантическую самостоятельность и своими значениями, следовательно, не объясняют смысла всего оборота в целом.

Возьмем для примера две идиомы.

В русском языке:

быть не в своей тарелке (т. e. быть в плохом настроении, чувствовать себя неловко).

В английском языке:

to sit above the salt

занимать видное положение.

Мотивировка общего значения идиомы часто остается неясной, а в некоторых случаях может быть раскрыта лишь путем исторического экскурса к истокам данного выражения.

Так, например, вышеприведенная русская идиома

(не) в своей тарелке

оказывается переводом французского выражения:

"dans son assiete ordinaire" со значением в своем обычном положении.

При этом слово assiette положение и меет омоним со значением тарелка.

При первоначальном переводе на русский язык это слово было ошибочно понято в значении тарелка и все выражение оказалось переведенным неправильно, но фраза, однако сохранила истинный общий смысл французского оригинала.

Английская идиома:

to sit above the salt занимать видное положение (в дословном переводе сидеть выше соли)

связана со старинным английским обычаем усаживать за столом наиболее почетных гостей ближе к хозяину, считая от сосуда с солью, стоявшего в центре стола.

При переводе идиом дословный перевод, как первый черновой этап перевода не может иметь места, ибо, как было указано, общий смысл выражения никогда не равняется сумме значений составляющих его элементов.

Основная задача переводчика, поэтому, заключается в том, чтобы подобрать определенный аналог в русском языке, правильно передающий смысл данного высказывания, например:

It rained cats and dogs.

Дождь лил как из ведра.

Значение идиомы, если оно дается словарем, отыскивается чаще всего по существительному. Например, в предложении:

The Turkish delegation at the Conference showed the white feather and yielded to the demands of the Americans

значение выражения

to show the white feather проявить трусость или малодушие находится по слову feather.

Перевод всего предложения:

Турецкая делегация на конференции проявила малодушие и уступила требованиям американцев.

Фразеологические единицы обогащают выразительные средства языка, придают ему живость и образность.

Из числа наиболее широко в языке используются фразеологические сочетания; они встречаются в текстах любого характера, и в том числе в научной и технической литературе.

Что касается фразеологических единств и сращений, то они употребляются в газетных текстах и, чаще всего, в художественной литературе.

Список фразеологических единиц, часто встречающихся в научно - технической литературе и газетных текстах:

all over the world	во всем мире
a number of	некоторое количество, несколько
as a matter of fact	в действительности
as early as	еще в
at any rate	во всяком случае, по меньшей мере
in all respects	во всех отношениях
in terms of	в единицах, в зависимости
it can be seen	можно видеть
it is assumed	предполагается
it should be kept (borne) in mind	следует помнить
it should be noted	следует отметить
it should be remembered	следует помнить
in other words	другими словами
no matter how (what)	независимо от того, как (что)
on the one hand	с одной стороны
on the other hand	с другой стороны
on the part of	со стороны
one cannot but	нельзя не
on a large scale	в широком масштабе
rather than	а не; скорее чем
suffice it to mention	достаточно сказать
to be over	окончиться
to give rise to	вызывать; давать начало
to pay attention	обращать внимание
to put an end to	положить конец
to take advantage of	воспользоваться
to take part	принимать участие
to take place	происходить, иметь место
to play the part	играть роль
whether or not	независимо от того

Упражнение

1. Переведите следующие предложения:

А.

1. The Soviet Union has been persistently working to put an end to strained relations among nations.

2. Taking advantage of the vast natural resources of our country we were able to develop industry at a very rapid rate.

3. The progress accomplished by the socialist camp since World War II is truly impressive; suffice it to mention the vast achievements of socialist construction in the USSR.

4. The use of arms against any movement of national liberation constitutes a factor of international tension and may give rise to a centre from which war will spread.

5. Scientists of different lines took part in the construction of the first atomic power station in the USSR.

6. The object of the treaty proposed by the USSR was to prevent aggression against any state in Europe on the one hand and, on the other hand, to promote international со-operation.

7. In other words, the NATO treaties by resurrecting Kosovo only create the basis for carrying out the revanchist plans of Great Albania.

1. Great attention is now paid to the use of "white coal" for it is one of the cheapest sources of power.

2. Our achievements in nucleonics are recognized all over the world.

3. As early as 1899 Tsiolkovsky designed the first wind tunnel in Russia.

4. There are a number of isotopes artificially prepared in laboratory.

5. As a matter of fact, the molecules of a gas are moving about freely.

6. The energy released during an atomic bomb explosion is at any rate equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT.

7. The steam turbine is in all respects more effective than the old reciprocating engine.

8. All materials can be described in terms of certain component substances, each of which has definite specific properties.

9. It can be seen that the number of protons contained in the nucleus gives the atomic weight of the substance.

10. It is assumed that the atom is made up of a nucleus consisting of one or more protons surrounded by an equal number of electrons.

11. It should be kept in mind that hydrogen is the simplest and lightest element.

12. It should be noted that a substance is composed of tiny particles called molecules.

13. It should be remembered that the gas has neither a definite shape, nor a definite size.

14. The dissolved substance never settles out, no matter how long we wait.

15. For chemical reactions, on the other hand, the energies required to permit interaction of the electronic fields are rarely more than a few electron-volts.

16. One cannot but admit the justice of our demands at the conference.

17. We want to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes on a large scale.

18. This conductor is usually made of braid rather than solid tubing to make the line flexible.

19. The transformations of atomic nuclei take place within the stars at enormous temperatures.

20. The cell of battery had played an important part in the development of science and technique.

21. All living organisms, whether one cellar or not, have the power of transforming energy and show signs of activity.

B.

1. The teaching stuff lends a ready ear to the voice of students and endeavors not only to teach them but also to learn from them.

2. The Nation’s unfailing desire to develop foreign trade on mutually advantageous terms found expression in a number of concrete acts.

3. In the Soviet Union great attention was paid by the Communist Party and the Soviet Government to the development of science and to the work of inventors.

4. The peoples have come to realize that peace can be won by patient and persistent effort on their part.

5. The realistic trend in German literature is clearly gaining the upper hand.

6. In the construction of this plant India could dispense with the aid offered by some American firms, as it was not the only pebble on the beach.

7. In the production of petroleum we have long ago overshot the prewar level.

8. In the economic talks with British and American representatives the Turkish government found itself to be between two hurdles,

9. German occupation forces in France resorted to brutal measures in fighting against the liberation movement of the country, but, as every dark cloud always has a silver lining, German atrocities only united and strengthened the anti-fascist activities of the French patriots.

10. The eyes of the world have been riveted to the Berlin conference of foreign ministers.

11. In supporting Islamic regime in Iraq certain British circles are backing the wrong horse.

12. The latest Italian political crisis came to a head when the Chamber of Deputies voted no confidence to the Government.

13. The vast importance of faithful adherence to the principles of international law for peaceful cooperation among states has been stressed time and again in international discussion

14. Rapid industrialization of India is a matter of great purport and one involving many difficulties; to see it through demands great exertion of effort on the part of the Indian people.

15. The Daily Worker raised its voice in defense of worker's interests exposing the reactionary character of the new Bill and calling a spade a spade.

16. It should be noted here that the first of the new turbine generators of the reconstructed Dnieproges began producing current as early as spring, 1947.

17. The majority of the Bulgarian people do not see eye to eye with Jelev on the question of rearming Bulgaria.

18. The recognition of the link between the problem of security and that of Germany was mirrored in the Geneva discussions.

1. The radioactive changes of matter take place of their own accord; we can neither start, nor stop them.

2. Among the non-metals some forms of carbon are very good conductors; on the other hand, the diamond, which contains carbon, greatly resists the passage of electric current.

3. The assumption that in near future we shall be able to transform climate in some arctic regions by means of atomic energy cannot be relegated to the domain of mere fancy.

4. Powder was known to the Chinese as early as the V century.

5. In order to take advantage of the activity of sodium in liberating hydrogen, an alloy of sodium with lead or mercury is sometimes used.

Практикум

А

ANTIPROTONS AT SOLAR MAXIMUM. The solar wind is an electron-proton plasma blowing away from the Sun at 400-800 km/sec and can be thought of as a tenuous atmosphere (called the heliosphere) of the Sun extending over most of the solar system. The charged particles in this gust both envelope and are influenced by the Sun's magnetic field. This field, because it rotates with the Sun, gets pretty tangled up. When now cosmic rays from outside the solar system venture in, they are buffeted by wind and field. During the present solar cycle of the 1990s, the configuration of the field is such that positively charged cosmic-ray protons drift
into the inner heliosphere via solar polar regions and exit in equatorial regions. After the soon approaching peak period of solar activity (solar maximum), however, the Sun's field will be reversed. Then the negatively charged cosmic-ray antiprotons preferentially follow the polar route and more easily enter the inner heliosphere to be detected by earthbound or satellite detectors. Thus in the period 2001-2010 we should see relatively more antiprotons than in the
previous cycle, which is now ending. Physicists at the Bartol Research Institute at the University of Delaware have calculated when and by how much this antiproton surplus should manifest itself, telling us how well we understand the solar cycle. They have also sought ways of understanding the source of the antiprotons. Most antiprotons are made when commonplace protons strike interstellar dust, but some might have a more spectacular birth in the annihilation of dark matter or in the evaporation of primordial black holes.

WHY IS THE SAHARA A DESERT? Fossil pollen, rock art, and other hints indicate that the Sahara was much greener 6000 years ago in the mid-Holocene period. Neolithic peoples seemed to have hastened desertification at the northern and southern edges of the Sahara, but German geophysicists believe the main causes were natural. They point to the fact t