The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.

As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.

"No, this is my first dance," she said. (Mansfield)

Almost immediately the band started and her second partner seemed to spring from the ceiling. (Mansfield)

But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.

Then, advancing obliquely towards us, came a fifth. (Wells) (SUBJECT)

Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I might as well be the first. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)... she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of the forehead, and a third that ran down and disappeared under the starched collar. (London) (OBJECT)

In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the denomi­nator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.

Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58 — seven point (decimal) five eight.

 

 

Chapter VI

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

 

§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of people or things.

But Johnny and Paddy were asleep, the rose-red glow had paled, bats were flying, and still the bathers had not returned. (Mansfield)

Crearer said, "I'm afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal of the leaflet." (Heym)

§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake, etc.

§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.

"He is awake!" Sally cried. (Saxton)

That was all right in the daytime, but while Alice was putting her to bed she grew suddenly afraid. (Mansfield)

When he got into bed, he was sure he'd never fall asleep, and yet he was dog-tired. (Wilson)

... but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with female heads. (Dickens)

Words of the category of state may be used as objective predica­tives.

She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely alone again. (Wilson)

Words of the category of state may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in post-position:

The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had fainted in the drawing-room, and their two little chil­dren asleep upstairs were really too big for the doll's house. (Mansfield)

§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of de­gree:

Sally, who had been half asleep with her head on Eddie's lap, woke up and began chanting. (Saxton)

Mrs. Gamp's curtains were drawn close, and Mrs. Gamp was fast asleep. (Dickens).

He immediately came fully awake. (Heym)

Words of the category of state may take prepositional indirect objects.

"You were afraid of the war?" she asked compassionately. (Heym)

... but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with female heads. (Dickens)

"Merry," cried that more prudent damsel, "really I am ashamed of you " (Dickens)

 

Chapter VII

 

THE VERB

§ 1. The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.

Verbs may be transitive and intransitive.

Verbs have finite forms which can be used as the predicate of a sentence and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.

§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:

(a) simple (read, live, hide, speak);

(b) derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose);

(c) compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat);

(d) composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up). The modern term for these verbs is phrasal verbs.

The postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus, there are composite verbs whose meaning is differ­ent

from the meaning of their components: to give up — бросать, пре­кращать; to bring up — воспитывать; to do away — ликвидировать.

There are other composite verbs in which the original meaning of its components is preserved: to stand up, to come in, to go out, to put on.

§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are: the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak — spoke — spoken.

According to the way in which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.

I. Regular verbs. They form the Past indefinite and Participle II by adding -ed to the stem of the verb, or only -d if the stem of the verb ends in -e.

to want — wanted to unite — united

to open — opened to live — lived

The pronunciation of -ed(-d) depends on the sound preceding it. It is pronounced:

[id] after t, d: wanted ['wontid], landed ['lændid];

[d] after voiced consonants except d and after vowels: opened ['əupnd], played [pleid];

[t] after voiceless consonants except t: worked [w3:kt]. The following spelling rules should be observed:

(a) Final y is changed into i before the addition of -ed if it is pre­ceded by a consonant.

to carry — carried to reply — replied

y remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel,

to enjoy — enjoyed

(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a short stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled.

to stop — stopped to stir — stirred

to plan — planned to submit — submitted

to sob — sobbed

Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel.

to occur — occurred

to prefer — preferred

to refer — referred

Final r is not doubled when preceded by a diphthong, to appear — appeared

Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel, stressed or unstressed:

to compel — compelled

to quarrel — quarrelled

2. Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs:

(a) verbs which change their root vowel.

to sing — sang — sung

to meet — met — met

to win — won — won

 

(b)verbs which change their root vowel and add -en for Partici­ple II.

to speak — spoke — spoken

to write — wrote — written

to take — took — taken

(c)verbs which change their root vowel and add -d or -t.

to sell — sold — sold

to bring — brought — brought

(d)verbs which change their final -d into -t.

to send — sent — sent

to build — built — built

(e)verbs which have the same form for the Infinitive, Past Indefinite and Participle II.

to put — put — put

to set — set — set

to shut — shut — shut

(f)verbs whose forms come from different stems.

to be — was,

were — been

to go — went — gone

(g)special irregular verbs.

to have — had — had

to make — made — made

to do — did — done

(h)defective (anomalous) verbs.

can — could may — might

must will — would

ought shall — should

 

3. Mixed verbs. Their Past Indefinite is of the regular type, and their Participle II is of the irregular type:

to show — showed — shown

to sow — sowed — sown

§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.

1. Notional verbs are those which have a full meaning of their own and can be used without any additional words as a simple predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, to know, to ask.

Ricky surrounded her with great care and luxury. (Stern)

She knew what he was thinking. (Galsworthy)

2. Auxiliary verbs are those which have lost their meaning and are used only as form words, thus having only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, would, may.

I don't recollect that he ever did anything, at least not in my time. (Galsworthy)

Their father... had come from Dorsetshire near the beginning of the century. (Galsworthy)

But all this time James was musing... (Galsworthy)

He would have succeeded splendidly at the Bar. (Galsworthy)

3. Link verbs are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate.

The house was too big. (Galsworthy)

The old face looked worn and hollow again. (Galsworthy)

Manson no longer felt despondent, but happy, elated, hopeful.(Cronin)

In different contexts the same verb can be used as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link verb:

... She turned her head sullenly away from me. (Collins) (NO­TIONAL VERB)

She... turned deadly pale. (Collins) (LINK VERB)

No one was there to meet him. (Lindsay) (NOTIONAL VERB)

She was not a ten-year-old girl any more... (Dreiser) (LINK VERB)

She was constantly complaining of being lonely. (Shaw) (AUXI­LIARY VERB)

There is a special group of verbs which cannot be used without additional words, though they have a meaning of their own. These are modal verbs such as can, may, must, ought, etc.

A slow swell of feeling choked the little boy's heart. Though he could not, dared not question the consul's strict command, its purpose lay beyond his comprehension. (Cronin) "We ought to have stayed in Italy," he said. "We ought never to have come back to Manderley." (Du Maurier)

The same verb in different contexts can be modal and auxiliary.

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. (Du Maurier) (AUXILIARY VERB)

I don't honestly think Lady Crowan was exaggerating when she said something should be done in your honour. (Du Maurier) (MODAL VERB)

I had no idea she would do that. (Du Maurier) (AUXILIARY VERB)

He needed a cook. Why couldn't she apply for the job? But Morris would not hear of it. (Prichard) (MODAL VERB)

§ 5. As has been stated above a verb can be transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs can take a direct object, i. e. they express an action which passes on to a person or thing directly. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, to see, to show, to bring, to love etc.

Jon had never loved her so much as in that minute which seemed to falsify Fleur's fears and to release his soul. (Galsworthy)

Youth only recognizes Age by fits and starts. Jon, for one, had never really seen his father's age till he came back from Spain. (Galsworthy)

There are some transitive verbs which are hardly ever used without a direct object, such as to take, to make, to give, to have.

Arthur signed the receipt, took his papers and went out in dead silence. (Voynich)

There are other verbs which can be used either with or without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to hear; to see.

On Friday night about eleven he had packed his bag and was leaning out of his window... when he heard a tiny sound, as of a finger-nail, tapping on his door. (Galsworthy)

The starch, as he soon heard, was valued at ten dollars a barrel and it only brought six. (Dreiser)

Intransitive verbs cannot take a direct object. Here belong such ^verbs as to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim.

She shrank slowly away from him, and stood quite still. (Voy- nich)

There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.

This book sells well.

Though Dora tried hard the figures would not add.

There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to run, etc.

For that man, I've been running people through the front line! (Heym) — И для этого человека я гонял людей через линию фронта!

The stream which worked the mill came bubbling down in a dozen rivulets. (Galsworthy)— Река, приводившая в движение мельницу, разбегалась, журча, на десятки ручейков.

In these examples the verbs are used in a causative meaning, i. e. the person or thing denoted by the object is made to perform the action denoted by the verb.

There are verbs which in different contexts can be transitive or intransitive. As far as Modern English is concerned, it is impossible to say which meaning is primary and which is secondary. Here belong such verbs as to open, to move, to turn, to change, to drop, etc.

The woman opened the door at once almost breathlessly. (Hardy)

While she stood hesitating, the door opened, and an old man came forth shading a candle with one hand. (Hardy)

§ 6. A verb can also have some aspect characteristics depending solely on its lexical meaning. Accordingly verbs are divided into terminative, non-terminative and verbs of double lexical (aspect) character.

1. Terminative verbs denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which it cannot go. Here belong simple and composite verbs, such as to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to. They can correspond both to Russian verbs of imperfective and of perfective

aspect: to come — приходить, прийти; to build — строить, построить; to give — давать, дать; to die — умирать, умереть.

He went to the kitchen and brought him a cake and a plate of biscuits. (Carter)

Every head turned. Row after row of men and women stood up to see who it was making his way to the front. (Carter)

2. Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action which does not imply any limit. Here belong such verbs as to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have_y to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to hope, to sit, etc.

They correspond to Russian verbs of imperfective aspect only: to live — жить, to exist — существовать, to sleep — спать.

She sat erect in the hard chair, her gloved hands gracefully folded in her lap. (Carter)

2. Verbs of double lexical character in certain contexts have a ter- minative meaning, and in others, a non-terminative meaning. Here belong such verbs as to see, to hear; to write, to read, to translate.

Arthur looked round the room, saw that everything was hidden, and unlocked the door. (Voynich) — Артур бросил взгляд на комнату, увидел, что все спрятано, и отпер дверь. I don't believe in fairies. I never see any. (Galsworthy) — Я не верю в фей. Я их никогда не вижу.

§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood.

In Modern English there are but few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb. These are:

1.The third person singular Present Indefinite Indicative — he speaks.

2.The third person singular of the verb to have.

He has a posh car. I/You/We/They have posh cars.

The verb to be has suppletive forms for different persons (singular and plural).

I am, was

He is, was

 

 

We

You } are, were

They

§ 8. The category of tense is very clearly expressed in the forms of the English verb. This category denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled.

The category of aspect shows the way in which the action develops, whether it is in progress or completed, etc. In Russian the category of aspect predominates, and the category of tense is subordinated to it. In English contrariwise the category of tense predominates and aspect is subordinated to it. Some of the English tenses denote time relations, others denote both time and aspect relations. There are four groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous. The Indefinite form has no aspect characteristics whatever, the Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms denote both time and aspect rela­tions. Each of these forms includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Future in the Past, i. e. future from the point of view of the past. Thus there are 16 tenses in English.

(For detailed treatment see Tenses, § 1-37.)

§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb which indicates relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.

There are three voices in English: the active voice, the passive voice, and the neuter-reflexive voice. (In many textbooks of today only two voices — the active and the passive — are distinguished.)

The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate.

The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is acted upon.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter VII, Passive Voice, § 1-5.)

The neuter-reflexive voice shows that the action expressed by the predicate passes on to the subject. This voice is formed by means of a reflexive pronoun.

Helen lifted herself up and looked towards nurse. (Gaskell) The truth was, Mary was dressing herself. (Gaskell)

§10. Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

We distinguish the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter VII, Mood.)

 

 

Tenses in the Active Voice

The Indefinite Form

The Indefinite form merely shows that the action takes place in the present, past or future. The form of the verb gives no indication as to its duration or completion.

The Present Indefinite

§ 1. The formation of the Present Indefinite.

1. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.

In the third person singular the ending is added. After a sibilant represented in spelling by s, ss, ch, sh, tch, x, z and after the vowel o, -es is added: he writes, he reads, he speaks; he passes, he pushes, he watches, he teaches; he goes, he does [dAz].

2. The pronunciation of the ending-^ (-es) depends on the sound preceding it. It is pronounced as:

[iz] after the sibilants [s], [z], [ʃ], [tʃ], [dʒ]: passes ['pa:siz], pushes ['puʃiz], teaches ['ti;tʃiz] Judges ['dʒʌdʒiz];

[z] after voiced non-sibilants and vowels: reads [ri:dz], lives [livz], sees [si:z];

[s] after voiceless non-sibilants: works [w3:ks], wants [wonts].

3. In the third person singular we find the following orthographical change:

A final y is changed into i if it is preceded by a consonant and then

is added: to study — he studies; to try — he tries.

After a vowel y is kept unchanged: to play — he plays; to stay — he stays.

 

 

4. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I work He works She works We work You work They work	Do I work? Does he work? Does she work? Do we work? Do you work? Do they work?	I do not work He does not work She does not work We do not work You do not work They do not work

 

1. The contracted negative forms are:

I don't work

He doesn't work

They don't work

2. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Do you not work?

Don't you work?

Does he not work?

Doesn't he work?

§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite.

The Present Indefinite is used to denote:

1.Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use.

The Browns go to the seaside every summer.

The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.

2.Actions and states characterizing a given person.

She has many accomplishments: she sings and plays the piano beautifully.

3.Universal truths, something which is eternally true.

Magnet attracts iron.

The earth rotates round its axis.

4.Actions going on at the present moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form).

I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.

I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.

The list of verbs which are normally not used in the Continuous form (but there are exceptions) is as follows: want, prefer; like, love, hate, belong, see, hear; know, realize, believe, suppose, mean, understand, remember, forget, seem, have (when the meaning is 'possess'), think (when the meaning is 'believe').

(For detailed treatment see § 16.)

1. A future action:

(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunc­tions when, till, until, before, after; as soon as, as long as, if unless, on condition that, provided.

... Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go? (Ch. Brontл)

I promise not to try to see Robert again till he asks for me. (Ch. Brontл)

N o t e. It should be borne in mind that this use of the Present Indefi­nite occurs only in adverbial clauses of time and condition. In object and attributive clauses introduced by when the Future Indefinite is used.

I wonder when he will give us an answer.

We are impatiently awaiting the day when our friends will return from their long journey.

(b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave etc. The future action is regarded as something fixed.

The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.

We find the same phenomenon in Russian.

Он уезжает завтра.

В следующее воскресенье мы идем в театр.

The Past Indefinite

§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite.

1. The Past Indefinite is formed by adding -ed or -d to the stem (regular verbs), or by changing the root vowel, or in some other ways (irregular verbs).

(For detailed treatment see The Verb, § 3.)

2. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do (did) and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I worked (wrote) He worked (wrote) She worked (wrote) We worked (wrote) You worked (wrote) They worked (wrote)	Did I work (write)? Did he work (write)? Did she work (write)? Did we work (write)? Did you work (write)? Did they work (write)?	I did not work (write) He did not work (write) She did not work (write) We did not work (write) You did not work (write) They did not work (write)

 

3. The contracted negative forms are:

I didn't work She didn't work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Did you not work? Didn't you work?

 

§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite.

The Past Indefinite denotes an action performed within a period of time which is already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday, a week ago, last year, etc.

The sun came out a moment ago.

Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening. (Ch. Bronte)

Ellean breakfasted two hours ago, and then went out walking with the dog (Pinero)

The Past Indefinite can correspond to the Russian past perfective and past imperfective (совершенный и несовершенный вид).

He smoked a cigarette and left the room (выкурил).

He smoked in silence for a few minutes (курил).

The translation depends on the context and the lexical character of the verb.

The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

(a)an action performed in the past.

We entered Farmer Ridley's meadow in silence. (Marryat)

(b)a succession of past actions.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He threw down his spade and entered the house. (Ch. Bronte) — Он бросил лопату и вошел в дом.

(с)repeated actions in the past.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

He made an entry in his diary every night. (Bennett) — Каждый вечер он делал запись в дневнике.

Note. Repeated actions in the past which no longer happen can be expressed by used to + Infinitive and would + Infinitive. Used to is more colloquial and would is more literary.

Every afternoon, when the children came from school, they used to go and play in the Giant's garden. (Wilde)

When fits of melancholy came upon him, he would spend all days locked in his room. (E. Bronte)

Sometimes used to does not denote repeated actions, but actions charac­terizing a person or actions or states which lasted a long time.

The Reed used to like the rain. (Wilde)

There used to be an old oak-tree near the house.

The interrogative form is did... use to?, the negative form is didn't use to/ used not to.

Did you use to read a lot when you were a child?

John didn't use to go out very often until he met Val.

 

The Future Indefinite

§ 5. The formation of the Future Indefinite.

1. The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Shall is used for the first person singular and plural. In British English prescriptive tradition forbids will as a future auxiliary with the first person singular and plural, but this tradition is old-fashioned and is nowadays widely ignored. It is recommended though to use shall, in preference to will, with the first person in formal style.

Will is used for the first, second and the third person singular and plural. In informal style the contracted form ‘ll is used for all the persons. In American English only will is used with all the persons.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb. Shall is still used in British English in questions with the first person singular and plural.

What shall I wear to the party? I'll drive, shall I? Affirmative Interrogative Negative I shall/will work He will work She will work We shall/will work You will work They will work Shall/Will I work? Will he work? Will she work? Shall/Will we work? Will you work? Will they work? I shall/will not work He will not work She will not work We shall/will not work You will not work They will not work

 

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll work

You'll work

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't [ʃa:nt] work

He won't [wəunt] work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall we not work?

Shan't we work?

Will he not work?

Won't he work?

§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action.

It will be much cooler up at Fiesole. (Voynich)

N o t e. To denote a future action the word combinations to be going + Infinitive, to be about + Infinitive, and to be on the point of + Gerund are often used.

To be going to, to be about to, to be on the point of denote an action which is expected to take place in the nearest future. To be going to is colloquial, to be on the point of is literary.

This is going to be a cheerful evening. (Shaw)

The runners are about to start.

The Future Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the future perfec­tive and imperfective.

I will read ten chapters tomorrow. — Завтра я прочту десять глав.

I will read the whole day tomorrow. — Завтра я буду читать целый день.

The Future Indefinite in the Past

§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

1. The Future Indefinite in the Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should and would and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Should is used for the first person singular and plural (only in Brit­ish English).

Would is used for the first, second and the third person singular and plural.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I should/would work He would work She would work We should/would work You would work They would work	Should/Would I work? Would he work? Would she work? Should/Would we work? Would you work? Would they work?	I should/would not work He would not work She would not work We should/would not work You would not work They would not work

 

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd work

He'd work

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't work

He wouldn't work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not work? Shouldn't I work?

Would he not work? Wouldn't he work?

§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

The Future Indefinite in the Past denotes an action which was future from the point of view of the past.

I was sure he would agree with me.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI11.)

 

 

The Continuous Form

The Continuous form denotes an action in progress at the present moment or at a given moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense and Participle I of the notional verb.

The Present Continuous

§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous.

1. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present In­definite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. (On the formation of Participle I see Chapter VIII, § 3.)

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I am reading He is reading She is reading We are reading You are reading They are reading	Am I reading? Is he reading? Is she reading? Are we reading? Are you reading? Are they reading?	I am not reading He is not reading She is not reading We are not reading You are not reading They are not reading

 

3.The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'm reading

She's reading

We're reading

The contracted negative forms are:

She isn't reading

We aren't reading

4.The negative-interrogative forms are:

Am I not reading?

Is she not reading?

Isn't she reading?

Are you not reading?

Aren't you reading?

§10. The use of the Present Continuous.

I. The Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment. It should be borne in mind that the term 'present moment' is not limited to the actual moment of speaking. The Present Continuous is used when in Russian we can say сейчас (теперь), which refers not only to the moment of speaking, but has a wider meaning.

"My dear," said Jolyon with gentle exasperation, "you are talking nonsense." (Galsworthy)

Robert is just now speaking to my uncle and they are shaking hands. (Ch Bronte)

How is Dartie behaving now? (Galsworthy) — Как Дарти ведет себя сейчас?

Katya is in Britain for three months. She is learning English.

Note. The Present Indefinite, not the Present Continuous, is used to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and not the process.

He did such a mean thing and you defend him.

Why don't you read your examples?

Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

Why don't you answer? Good God, John, what has happened? (Thackeray)

The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment.

You are being a nuisance.

"You are being bitter," said Karen. (Heym)

2.When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the other is a habitual action, the first is expressed by the Present Continu­ous and the second by the Present Indefinite.

You never open your lips while you are painting. (Wilde)

I never talk while I am working. (Wilde)

3.The Present Continuous is used when people are talking about their future arrangements. The Future Indefinite is not used in such cases.

I'm leaving tonight. (Abrahams)

He is coming to us tomorrow to stop till next month. (Collins)

I'm playing golf tomorrow.

What are you doing tonight?

If not personal arrangements, but timetables, programmes, etc. are described, the Present Indefinite should be used:

What time does the film begin?

The train leaves Bracknell at 10.03 and arrives in London at 11.05.

4.The Present Continuous is used to express a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used.

The earth is always moving.

The sun is ever shining.

5.The Present Continuous is used to express an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever; constantly). The action is represented as going on without any interval.

She is always grumbling.

"She is constantly thinking of you," I said. (Wells)

The difference between case 4 and case 5 is as follows: what is said in No. 4 is literally true, whereas in No. 5 there is an element of exag­geration, because the action in this case cannot go on without intervals. The exaggeration is generally called forth by emotion.

 

 

The Past Continuous

§11. The formation of the Past Continuous.

The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I was reading He was reading She was reading We were reading You were reading They were reading	Was I reading? Was he reading? Was she reading? Were we reading? Were you reading? Were they reading?	I was not reading He was not reading She was not reading We were not reading You were not reading They were not reading

 

The contracted negative forms are:

He wasn't reading

They weren't reading

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Was he not reading?

Wasn't he reading?

Were they not reading?

Weren't they reading?

§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous.

1. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action which was going on at a definite moment in the past.

It was twelve and he was still sitting, when the presence of Cowperwood was announced. (Dreiser)

The definite moment is indicated either by another past ac­tion expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

When I returned, she was sweeping the floor. (Bennett)

At midnight he was still working, though he was feeling ill and was longing to go to bed.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but understood from the situation.

He did not notice what was going on around him — he was reading.

The Past Continuous is used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment in the past.

He knew he was being scientific and restrained. (Cronin)

2. The Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite is often used after such phrases as the whole day, all day long.

They were working in the garden all day long. They worked in the garden all day long.

3. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action thought of as a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, ever; constantly are used. The Past Continuous in this use is often to be found in emotional speech.

She was constantly complaining of being lonely. (Shaw)

He was never able to look after his flowers at all, for his friend, the Miller, was always coming round and sending him off on long errands or getting him to help on the mill. (Wilde)

The Past Continuous is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

When I came home, she was cooking dinner. — Когда я вер­нулся, она готовила обед.

 

The Future Continuous

§13. The formation of the Future Continuous.

1. The Future Continuous is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative
I shall/will be reading He will be reading She will be reading We shall/will be reading You will be reading They will be reading	Shall/Will I be reading? Will he be reading? Will she be reading? Shall/Will we be reading? Will you be reading? Will they be reading

 

Negative

I shall/will not be reading He will not be reading She will not be reading We shall/will not be reading You will not be reading They will not be reading

 

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll be reading

He'll be reading

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't be reading

He won't be reading

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall I not be reading?

Shan't I be reading?

Will he not be reading?

Won't he be reading?

§ 14. The use of the Future Continuous.

1. The Future Continuous is used to denote an action which will be going on at a definite moment in the future.

I wonder whether we shall ever arrive at a decision. I am sure the next time you call we shall still be wavering. (Collins)

The definite moment is indicated either by another future ac­tion expressed by a verb in the Present Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

I'll already be working when you return.

At 12 o'clock I'll still be working.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but is understood from the situation.

I am sure you won't be able to speak to him, he will be working.

2. The Future Continuous can have a modal colouring: it can denote an action which is sure to take place, often independently of the will of the speaker and the doer of the action.

I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow.

But my dear Ann Veronica, you will be getting into debt. (Wells)

The Future Continuous also denotes an action which is already planned or arranged. In this respect is it similar to the corresponding usage of the Present Continuous Tense (§ 10. 3).

I'll be going out (I'm going out) later. Do you want anything?

The Future Continuous in the Past

§15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past.

1. The Future Continuous in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative
I should/would be reading He would be reading She would be reading We should/would be reading You would be reading They would be reading	Should/Would I be reading? Would he be reading? Would she be reading? Should/Would we be reading? Would you be reading? Would they be reading?

 

 

Negative

I should/would not be reading He would not be reading She would not be reading We should/would not be reading You would not be reading They would not be reading

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd be reading

He'd be reading

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't be reading

He wouldn't be reading

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not be reading?

Shouldn't I be reading?

Would he not be reading?

Wouldn't he be reading?

§16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past.

The Future Continuous in the Past denotes an action going on at a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I felt sure they would be discussing the same problem when I called.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)

Note l. Influence of the lexical character of the verb on the use of the Indefinite and the Continuous form.

To express a process with terminative verbs the Continuous form alone is possible.

At that moment he was unlocking the door. (Oppenheim) — В этот момент он отпирал дверь.

With the Indefinite form the meaning would be quite different: the ac­tion would be represented as completed.

At that moment he unlocked the door. — В этот момент он отпер дверь.

То express a process with non-terminative verbs the Continuous form is mostly used, though the Indefinite form is also found, especially with such verbs as to sit, to stand, to lie, because these verbs express a state rather than a process.

When I saw her, she lay motionless on the sofa.

With the adverbial modifier the whole day yesterday (tomorrow) both the Indefinite and the Continuous form of non-terminative verbs can be used to denote a process.

I was so tired I slept (was sleeping) the whole day yester­day.

The meaning is the same, only with the Continuous form the process is expressed more emphatically.

Note 2. The use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous in complex sentences with as and while.

The use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous in complex sentences with as and while, when there are two actions going on at the same time, largely depends on the lexical character of the verb.

(1) If both the verbs are terminative, they are generally used in the Past Continuous.

She was arranging the books on the shelf while I was sweep­ing the floor.

(2) If one of them is terminative and the other non-terminative, the termi­native verb must be used in the Past Continuous and the non-terminative, verb may be used either in the Past Continuous or, preferably, in the Past Indefinite.

She was arranging the books on the shelf while I played the piano.

(3) If both verbs are non-terminative the best way is the Past Indefinite in both clauses.

He read as he ate. (Bennett)

There is another possibility: the use of the Past Indefinite in one clause and the Past Continuous in the other.

He was singing as he walked.

 

Verbs Not Used in the Continuous Form

It naturally follows from the definition of the Continuous form ("it denotes an action in a state of process at the present moment or at a definite moment in the past or future") that verbs which do not express a process are not used in the continuous form.

The following groups of verbs do not express a process:

(a) verbs denoting sense perception (to see, to hear);

(b) verbs denoting mental activity (to know, to believe);

(c) verbs denoting wish (to want, to wish);

(d) verbs denoting feeling (to love, to hate, to like);

(e) verbs denoting abstract relations (to have, to consist, to depend, to belong).

In such expressions as to see the sights of, to see somebody home, to see somebody off the verb to see does not mean 'видеть', so it can be used in the Continuous form.

They were seeing the sights of London while their cousin waited for them at the hotel. (Wells)

It is naturally possible to use the Continuous form of the verb to have in the expressions of the type to have dinner (lunch, supper), because it does not denote possession.

They are having lunch.

The verb to think cannot be used in the Continuous form if it denotes an opinion; it can if it denotes a process of thought.

I think you are right.

I am thinking of what you have just said.

The verb to admire cannot be used in the Continuous form if it means 'восхищаться'; it can if it means 'любоваться'.

"I hope you dote on Harry the Eighth!" "I admire him very much," said Carker. (Dickens)

What are you doing here, my poetic little friend? Admiring the moon, eh? (Collins)

The Perfect Form

The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the past or future.

It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb. (On the formation of Par­ticiple II see Chapter VII, § 3.)

The Present Perfect

§17. The formation of the Present Perfect.

1. The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I have worked He has worked She has worked We have worked You have worked They have worked	Have I worked? Has he worked? Has she worked? Have we worked? Have you worked? Have they worked?	I have not worked He has not worked She has not worked We have not worked You have not worked They have not worked

 

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I've worked

He's worked

You've worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I haven't worked

He hasn't worked

You haven't worked

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Has she not worked?

Hasn't she worked?

Have you not worked?

Haven't you worked?

§ 18. The use of the Present Perfect.

I. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action connected with the present.

Stop that car! They have killed a child. (Dreiser)

I am a little frightened for I have lost my way. (Dickens)

The Present Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, yet, already and of late. The adverb yet is used only in interrogative and negative sentences.

Mr. Worthing, I suppose, has not returned from town yef! (Wilde)

I have just written to him. (Dickens)

He has done a great deal of work of late. (Locke)

N o t e. In American English the Past Indefinite is often used to give new information or to announce a recent happening.

I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?

The Past Indefinite is used with just, already and yet.

I'm not hungry. I just had lunch.

Don't forget to post the letter. — I already posted it.

I didn't tell them about the accident yet.

The Present Perfect can be rendered in Russian by the past perfec­tive or imperfective.

How many pages have you translated for today? — Сколько страниц вы перевели к сегодняшнему дню? Have you ever translated technical articles? — Вы переводили когда-нибудь технические статьи?

2. The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after; as soon as to denote an action completed before a definite moment in the future.

Don't buy any more meat tomorrow until you have spoken to the mistress about it. (Bennett)

I am not going till you have answered me. (Galsworthy)

Note. Verbs of sense perception and motion such as to hear; to see, to come, to arrive, to return in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Present Indefinite and not in the Present Perfect.

I am sure he will recognize the poem when he hears the first line. — Я уверен, что он узнает стихотворение, когда услышит первую строчку.

We'll ask Mr. Franklin, my dear, if you can wait till Mr. Franklin comes. (Collins)

When the completion of the action is emphasized, the Present Perfect is used.

He will know the poem by heart when he has heard it twice. — Он будет знать стихотворение наизусть, когда дважды прослу­шает его.

3. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.

Mr. Cowperwood, I have known you now for something like fourteen years. (Dreiser)

We have been engaged these four years. (Austen)

Where have you been since last Thursday? (Wilde)

Have you been alone, Florence, since I was here last? (Dick­ens)

Note. There is a tendency in informal American English, and increas­ingly in informal British English, to use the Past Indefinite in the principal clause, if the adverbial clause of time is introduced by the conjunction since.

I lost ten pounds since I started swimming (informal).

This use of the Present Perfect is called the Present Perfect Inclusive.

The Present Perfect Inclusive is used:

(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.

"There is nothing to be done. She's dead — has been dead for hours," said the doctor. (Eliot)

(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Present Perfect Continu­ous is not impossible. See § 28.)

I have not slept since that night. (Bennett)

(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to live, to work, to study, to teach, to travel etc. (In this case the Present Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 28.)

I have worked upon the problem for a long time without reaching any conclusion. (Shaw)

The Present Perfect in this case is translated into Russian by the present or sometimes by the past imperfective.

I have known him for many years. — Я знаю его много лет. I have always been fond of music. — Я всегда любил му­зыку.

N о t е l. In the following cases the Present Perfect is not used:

1. Что вы сказали? — What did you say?

2. Я не слышал вашего вопроса. — I did not hear your ques­tion.

3. Где вы купили книгу? — Where did you buy the book?

4. Теперь я понял. — Now I understand.

5. Я слышал, что Мэри в Москве. — I hear that Mary is in Mos­cow (to hear is not a verb of sense perception here, it means 'the rumour reached me').

6. Мне сказали, что Мэри в Москве. — I am told that Mary is in Moscow.

7. Я забыл, где он живет. — I forget where he lives.

8. Я забыл название книги. — I forget the title of the book (a certain fact).

Compare:

I have forgotten to ring her up (a certain action).

N о t e 2. The Present Perfect is to be used in sentences starting with It's the first (second _y etc.) time..., This is the first (second, etc.) time...:

This is the first time she has driven a car.

§ 19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.

An action expressed by the Past Indefinite belongs exclusively to the sphere of the past, while the Present Perfect shows that a past oc­currence is connected with the present time.

She is not well and has changed very much of late.

She changed very much a great many years ago. (Dickens)

The Present Perfect is never used with such adverbial modifiers of the past time as yesterday, the other day, last week etc. With such adver­bial modifiers as today, this week etc. both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite arc used. The tenses are used according to the principle mentioned above (§ 4, § 18).

I have told you three times this week that she is coming home for a year. (Dreiser)

I want your sister, the woman who gave me money today. (Dick­ens)

With the adverb just the Present Perfect is used.

I have just hired a new pianist from St. Joe — a Negro. (Dreiser)

With the expression just now the Past Indefinite is used.

I saw you come in just now. (Dreiser)

Just now is less frequent than just.

The Past Perfect

§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I had worked He had worked She had worked We had worked You had worked They had worked	Had I worked? Had he worked? Had she worked? Had we worked? Had you worked? Had they worked?	I had not worked He had not worked She had not worked We had not worked You had not worked They had not worked

 

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd written

We'd written

The contracted negative forms are:

I hadn't written

We hadn't written

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Had he not written?

Hadn't he written?

Had you not written?

Hadn't you written?

§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect.

I. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on the side road. (Heym)

After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym)

Fortunately the rain had stopped before we started. (Ben­nett)

By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circum­stances to try to see him. (Dreiser)

The clock had not struck when he reached Gray's Inn. (Dickens)

The definite moment can be understood from the situation.

The Squire had laid down his knife and fork, and was staring at his son in amazement. (Eliot)

The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect.

Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an unpleasant letter. (Collins)

The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than.

They had no sooner arrived at this point than a most violent and startling knocking was heard. (Jerome)

Nell had scarcely settled herself on a little heap of straw in the corner when she fell asleep. (Dickens)

For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted.

No sooner had she laid herself down than she heard the pro­longed trill of the front-door bell. (Bennett)

The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, al­ready, yet.

Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs. (Bennett)

2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.

He waited until she had found the latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett)

The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking. (Eliot)

The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circum­stances to try to see him. (Dreiser) — К этому времени Kaynep- вуд написал Эйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае не пыталась с ним встретиться.

3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclu­sive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.

The Past Perfect Inclusive is used:

(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.

Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for some time. (Eliot)

(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.)

Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage. (Bennett)

(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to laststc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is Possible. See § 32.)

The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a halt. (Heym)

The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He had not written a line since he arrived. — Он не написал ни строчки с тех пор, как приехал.

§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used.

The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after; before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance.

He went on with his work after he had a short rest.

He had a short rest before he went on with his work.

When I wrote the letter, I posted it.

2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to ar­rive, to return, to see, to hear; in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous.

When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low evening dress... (Galsworthy)

When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.

When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.

He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.

 

The Future Perfect

§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect.

1. The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative
I shall/will have worked	Shall/Will I have worked?
He will have worked	Will he have worked?
She will have worked	Will she have worked?
We shall/will have worked	Shall/Will we have worked?