Attributive appositive clauses.

Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antece­dent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the adverbs how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically.

He stopped in the hope that she would speak. (Dickens)

And then she had a nightmare conviction that she'd lost her sense of direction and was going the wrong way. ( Lindsay)

I have a presentiment that he is bringing trouble and misery with him into the house. (Collins)

With his former doubt whether this dry hard personage were quite in earnest, Clennam again turned his eyes attentively upon his face. (Dickens)

There was no reason why she should not read it (the book). (Hichens)

Thus to Cytherea and Owen Gray the question how th eir lives would end seemed the deepest of possible enigmas. (Hardy)

The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses.

As has already been stated, attributive relative clauses are introduced by the following relative pronouns: who, which, that, as. In using these pronouns the following rules should be observed:

l. If the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being, who or whose are mostly used.

Kate turned to the general, who was near her, his face expres­sionless, yet alert. (Lawrence) A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

Whom is possible instead of who when it has the function of the object in the relative clause.

The man whom Iwanted to see was away on holiday.

But in spoken English who or that are preferred to whom.

The man who/that I wanted to see was away on holiday.

2.If the antecedent is a noun denoting an inanimate object, which is mostly used.

In this room, which was never used, a light was burning. (Dick­ens)

The castle, which stood on the highest platform of the clustered hills, was built of rough-hewn limestone. (Eliot)

3.The pronoun that may be used both when the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being and when it is a noun denoting an inanimate object. But it should be noted that the use of this pronoun in attributive clauses is limited; it is chiefly used in the following cases:

(a) if the antecedent is the pronoun all, everything or nothing.

All that she dreams comes true. (Dickens)

In a word, everything that goes to make life precious, that boy had. (Twain)

(b) if the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative degree, by the adjective only, or by the indefinite pronoun any.

The door opened, and there entered to us, quietly, the most re­markable-looking man that I had ever seen. (Collins)

The Moonstone was the only object that interested him in the smallest degree. (Collins) Any evil that people say of him is false. (Eliot)

N о t e. In these cases (a, b) the attributive clause may be connected with the principal clause asyndetically.

Time is all I want. (Dreiser)

Everything I could do to free myself came into my mind... (Eliot)

It was the worst Sunday he had spent in his life. (Dreiser)

I think she is the only really happy woman I have ever met with (Collins)

 

 

4. If the antecedent is a noun modified by the demonstrative pro­noun such the relative pronoun as is used.

For on the evening appointed for the Vauxhall party... there came on such a thunderstorm as only happens on Vauxhall nights, and as obliged the young people, perforce, to remain at home. (Thackeray)

Adverbial clauses.

An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.

He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym)

He was getting on better than he'd expected. (Lindsay)

Frank... returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. (Dreiser)

According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), pur­pose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condi­tion.

An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subor­dinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it.

When things are at the worst, they're sure to mend. (Collins)

He was sipping the whisky and soda when she retui ned, (Cronin)

The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by my lady. (Collins)

If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

He (Oliver) was still the same gentle, attached, affectionate crea­ture that he had been when pain and suffering had wasted his strength, and when he was dependent for every slight attention and comfort on those who tended him. ( Dickens)

§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time.

An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after; before, now that (теперь, когда).

My mother died when I was eight years old... (Eliot)

... we must strike while the iron's hot. (Galsworthy)

I shall hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in London. (Collins)

There was still a gleam of sunset in the west as he strolled along. (Cronin)

Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend in the road. (Cusack)

After this, they conversed on different subjects until they arrived at their journey's end. (Dickens)

But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped noticing my surround­ings. (Braine)

You can stay here as long as you want. (Hemingway)

She (June) had given him nothing of her company for a long time past, not in fact, sinceshe had become engaged to Bosinney. (Galsworthy)

There was scarcely time for him to swallow a cup of tea in the refreshment room before the southbound train was signalled. (Cronin)

This is the claim I make on you, now that we have found each other. (Eliot)

In some cases an adverbial clause of time introduced by the con­junction as has the meaning of the gradual development of a process.

As dark night drew on, the sea roughened. (Ch. Bronte)

Adverbial clauses in sentences of the following type are also clauses of time:

Scarcely had his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply. (London)

Hardly had they entered the house, when a violent thunder storm broke out.

No sooner had I wiped one salt drop from my cheek, than another followed. (Ch. Bronte)

The peculiarity of such sentences is that the conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.

Note 1. The conjunction when introducing adverbial clauses of time should not be confused with the adverb when introducing subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses. Com­pare the following examples:

And people love their homes, even when things are tough. (Gow and D'Usseau) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

The next thing to discover is when the paint was last seen without that smear. (Collins) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

Nothing told her when the eyes of her friend were for an instant fixed upon her, when the mind of her friend for a moment won­dered at the strange, new look in her face. (Hichens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

There were moments when I felt all the misery of my friendlessness, all the peril of my dreadful responsibility. (Collins) (ATTRIBU­TIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

Note 2. Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction while should not be confused with independent clauses in­troduced by the coordinating conjunction while.

There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. (Cronin) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and untidy. (Conan Doyle) (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE)

 

Adverbial clauses of place.

An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни).

... I am quite comfortable where I am. (Wilde)

I looked where she pointed. (Collins)

... the street singers and players were making their nightly pil­grimage, pausing, wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. (Hichens)

Note. One should not confuse the conjunction where introduceing ad­verbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.

Deronda placed himself where he could see her... (Eliot) (AD­VERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE)

This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a temporary lodging, soon after father's death. (Dickens) (PREDI­CATIVE CLAUSE)

Artois wondered where they were going. (Hichens)(OBJECT CLAUSE)

He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the child. (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE)

§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.

An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are intro­duced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others.

As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit. (Dickens)

Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome be­cause more often than not they contained bad news. (Priest­ley)

Since he had a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged him to write little pieces... for the college magazine. (Cronin)

He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his power. (Lawrence)

§15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.

Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action ex­pressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.

She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour. (Hardy)

Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they m ay healed. (Trollope)

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. (Du Maurier)

... he made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice lest the valet should overhear anything. ( Dickens)

 

§16. Adverbial clauses of condition.

Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.

If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (Austen)

I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love. (Trollope)

... my father, just at the last, consented to let him teach you, on condition that he never attempted to see your mother. (Voyhich)

I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided it lies in my power. (Dickens)

Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.

... should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him. (Trollope)

Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near fifty. (Hichens)

§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession.

An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, a ¹ no matter how, however, whoever, whatever; whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that.

^[1] The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first.

I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained. (Ch. Bronte)

Although the young man's eyes remained upon him, he did not speak... (Cronin)

Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. (Dreiser)

However much we may differ on the question of metaphysics, I am convinced of your absolute integrity. (Cronin)

He went forward to meet his uncle prepared to suppress the agita­tion he must feel, whatever news he was to hear. (Eliot)

 

§18. Adverbial clauses of result.

Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree.

Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunc­tion so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted. (Conan Doyle)

Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma.

He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw)

Tom was in ecstasies — in such ecstasies that he even controlled his tongue and was silent. (Twain)

 

§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner.

Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied.

... she did exactly as he told her. (Hardy)

Joe left the house as he had entered it... (Cronin)

 

§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.

Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions that_y as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though.

Mr. Direck's broken wrist healed sooner than he desired (Wells)

We were going up the road as fast as we could. (Hemingway)

He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many nights ( Wells)

She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking to himself. (Cronin)

Note. Some grammarians number among complex sentences, con­taining an adverbial clause of comparison, sentences of the following type:

 

The more he reflected on the idea the more he liked it. (Galswor­thy)

The nearer he drew to that grim citadel the faster his pulse raced. (Cronin)

This way of analysis is open to objection on the ground that in sentences of this type it is impossible to point out the principal and the subordinate clause as, strictly speaking, here we have mutual subordination.

 

§21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison.

As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his hands, he crossed the river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER)

She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) as some women love their husbands. (Dreiser) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON)

The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause.

It was a long time since I had written to the States... (Hemingway) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and reached out for the bill of fare. (King) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose.

They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow them. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)

I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Maurier) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)

 

 

The Compound-Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses.

There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips. (Twain)

 

Parenthetical Clauses

Besides all the types of clauses mentioned above, there is a special type of clause called the parenthetical clause, as in the following ex­amples:

You are, I am afraid, far more urgently in need of medical advice than your daughter. (Collins)

The next and last step in the investigation brought matters, as they say, to a crisis. (Collins)

Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think. (Eliot)

 

Chapter XVIII

 

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, Ю).

I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser)

I always thought it would come to this.

N о t e. It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate clause:

I've seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)

 

§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultane­ous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:

I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser) — Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.

Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a big fight of some sort. (Dreiser) — Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то бой.

If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:

He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot) — Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.

If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause.

He realized that the old life he had lived in that city since boy­hood was ended. (Dreiser) — Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства, окончилась.

If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used.

He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST)

He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST)

He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST)

Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker.

See! Here's his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me he shouldn't be back before I came here. (Dickens)

He asked me if there wasn't any hope that I would change. (Webster)

 

§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them.

As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)

 

§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subor­dinated.

She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett)

He said he was sure you were in.

 

§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:

Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)

 

§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.

 

 

Tenses Used in English and Russian Subordinate Clauses after a Past Tense in the Principal Clause

ENGLISH	RUSSIAN
Past Indefinite	Present
1 knew she played the piano every day.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле каждый день.
Past Continuous	Present
I knew she was playing the piano and did not want to disturb her.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и не хотел ее беспокоить.
Past Perfect	Past
I knew she had played the piano at the evening party.	Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере.
Past Perfect Continuous (Past Perfect Inclusive)	Present (in affirmative sentences)
I knew she had been playing (had played) the piano for two hours.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле два часа.
Past Perfect	Past (in negative sentences)
I knew she had not played the piano for a long time.	Я знал, что она давно не играла (не играет) на рояле.
Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive	Past
I knew she had been playing the piano.	Я знал, что она играла на рояле.
Future in the Past	Future
I knew she would play the piano at the evening party.	Я знал, что она будет играть на рояле на вечере.

 

§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.

Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)

The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:

The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause.

The speaker said that the peoples want peace.

The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is repre­sented as habitual, customary, or characteristic.

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme)

He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)

 

§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause.

She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were some thin gold rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone? (Eliot)

 

§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).

I didn't go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a narrow alley. (Eliot)

He didn't go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam tomorrow.

She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today.

Last year he worked more than he does this year.

He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today.

 

§10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses:

What he would do was of no importance.

The question was what he would do next.

It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:

She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot)

 

Chapter XIX

 

 

INDIRECT SPEECH

§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported.

§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced:

1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.

2. If the speaker reports somebody else's words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.

He said, "I am ready."

He said he was ready.

If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:

I said, "I am ready."

I said I was ready

3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstra­tive pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance:

Here is replaced by there.

This by that, these by those.

Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.

Today is replaced by that day.

Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.

Ago by before.

A year ago by a year before.

Last night by the previous night.

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
She said, "We have beenhere for a week."	She said they had beenthere for a week.
She said, "1 met themyesterday."	She said she had met themthe day before
She said, "We can't settle anything now."	She said they could not settle anything at that moment (then).

If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed.

An hour ago he said he would come here tonight.

I told him I wouldn't give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde)

4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.

The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite.

She said, "We oftenwrite letters."	She said they oftenwrote letters.
The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous.
She said, "Weare writing a letter."	She said theywere writing a letter.
The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, "Wehave justwritten a letter."	She said theyhad justwritten a let­ter.
The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.
She said, "Wehave been writing for an hour."	She said theyhad been writing for an hour.
The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, "Wewrote a letter last night."	She said theyhad written a letter on the previous night.

 

The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.

She said, "Iwas writing at 5 o'clock."	She said shewas (had been) writing at 5 o'clock.
The Past Perfect remains unchanged.
She said, "Wehad written the letter by 5 o'clock."	She said theyhad written the letter by 5 o'clock.
The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged.
She said, "Wehad been writing for an hour by 5 o'clock."	She said theyhad been writing for an hour by 5 o'clock.
The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past.
She said, "We'll write a letter tomor­row."	She said theywould write a letter the next day.
The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past.
She said, "We'll be writing at 5 o'clock."	She said theywould be writing at 5 o'clock.
The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past.
She said, "We'll have written the letter by 5 o'clock."	She said theywould have written the letter by 5 o'clock.
The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.
She said, "We'll have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock."	She said theywould have been writ­ing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock.

 

If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech.

She said, "Ihad left home before the telegramcame."	She said shehad left home before the telegramcame.
The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged.
She said, "Ihave been writing since Icame."	She said shehad been writing since shecame.

 

It is not always necessary to change the tense of the verb, if the verb in the principal clause is in the past.

If something is reported that is still true, there is no need to change the tense.

Tom said, "New York is bigger than London."

Tom said (that) New York is (was) bigger than London.

But if there is a difference between what was said and what is really true, the tense of the verb must be changed.

For example, you met Cathy. Cathy said, "John is ill". Later that day you see John playing tennis and looking well. You say, "I'm surprised that you are playing tennis, John. Cathy said you were ill."

5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are con­verted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged.

However, there is a case when the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
Ishould be discharged if Iwere seen speaking to you. (Shaw)	She said that shewould be dis­charged if shewere seen speaking to him.
It is true I drink, but Ishouldn't have taken to that if thingshad gone dif­ferently. (Maugham)	He admitted that he drank, but said he would not have taken to that if things had gone differently.

 

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish Ihad it. (Eliot)	She thought cheerfulness was a for­tune in itself. She wished shehad it.
Oh, how I wish Ihad neverseen him! (Hardy)	She said she wished shehad never seen him.
The boys will think none the worse of you whatever youmay have done. (Conan Doyle)	He said that the boys would think none the worse of him whatever hemight have done.

6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.

Shesaid, "I've never seen the like of it."	Shedeclared she had never seen the like of it.
Shesaid to him, "Do you know them?"	Sheasked him if he knew them.
Shesaid to him, "Come here at once!"	Shetold him to come at once.
Shesaid, "Why, I never expected he would do such a thing."	Sheexclaimed she had never expect­ed he would do such a thing.

(For detailed treatment see § 3, 4, 5, 7.)

 

7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech.

Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech.

Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.

Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.

She said, "I am so tired! I've been writ­ing for five hours "

She said she was very tired as she had been writing for five hours

If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.

 

She said to him, "It's very kind of you to offer to help me, very kind indeed."	She said it was very kind of him to offer to help her.
So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.
She said, "Jane plays the pianosowell!"	She said Jane played the pianoverywell.
She said, 'Jane issuch a good pia­nist!"	She said Jane was anexceedingly (very) good pianist.
Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.
She said,"Alas! I'll never be happy again!"	She exclaimedin despair she would never be happy again.
8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it ex­presses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).
She said to him, "Youmust be more careful." (advice)	She told him hemust be more care­ful.
She said, "Youmust be very fond of music if you go to concerts so often." (supposition)	She said hemust be very fond of mu­sic if he went to concerts so often.

She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy)

He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat)

Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not mind his being a little rough in his man­ners. (Dickens)

Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.

She said, "Imust get up early every	She said shehad to get up early every
morning."	morning.

 

Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.

She said, "Imust ring him up at two	She said shewas to ring him up at
o'clock."	two o'clock.

Might_y could, would, should (as a modal verb) and ought stay the same in indirect speech, may normally changes to might.

Indirect statements.

Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell_, to announce and in official style by the verb to inform.

With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition to is used.

Shesaid (to us), "There are interesting magazines in the reading-hall."	Shesaid (shetold us) that there were interesting magazines in the reading- hall.
Shesaid (to us), "I am leaving for good."	Sheannounced to us that she was leaving for good.
The monitorsaid to us, "There will be a meeting tonight."	The monitorinformed us that there would be a meeting that night.

One night the telephone bell rang and he (Cowperwood) in­formed her that he was compelled to remain at the office late. (Dreiser)

The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is used, the preposition to is necessary.

Shesaid she would be back directly.

Shesaid, "I'll be back directly."

You said that you would give me back my letter, didn't you? (Wilde)

The Miller said to his wife that he would go down and see Little Hans. (Wilde)

 

The verb to tell is used to introduce indirect speech only; the person addressed must be mentioned.

Shesaid to us, "I've received an in­teresting letter."

Shetold us she had received an in­teresting letter.

Note 1. The verb to tell is used without the person addressed being mentioned in sentences as The book tells of the life of Negroes, also in the expressions to tell a lie, to tell the truth, to tell a story.

Note 2. The verb to speak never introduces indirect speech because it is never followed by an object clause (it can only be followed by an object clause with a preposition).

Therefore the sentence 'Он говорил, что любит музыку' should be rendered in the following way: He said he was fond of music.

Note 3. It should be noted that the verb to speak cannot take a direct ob­ject, unless it is the name of a language or the noun truth in the expression to speak the truth. 'Он говорил много интересного' should be rendered in the following way: He said many interesting things.

An emphatic statement tinged with emotion is often introduced by the verb to declare.

Shesaid, "It's the dullest book I've ever read."	Shedeclared it was the dullest book she had ever read.
The innkeeperdeclared that he really wanted to go to Oakbourne. (Eliot)   Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the statement, the verbs to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to admit, to deny etc. are frequently used.
Hesaid to me, " I hope you have not forgotten that there will be a meeting tonight."	Hereminded me that there would be a meeting that night.
Hesaid, "The text is rather difficult."	Heremarked that the text was rather difficult.
Hesaid, "I did speak to her about that."	Headmitted having spoken to her about that.
Hesaid, "I never spoke to her."	Hedenied having spoken to her.
The childsaid to his mother, "I'll never disobey you again."	The childpromised his mother never to disobey her again.
Shesaid to them, "I'll certainly come in time."	Sheassured them that she would come in time.

I spoke to the station-master and also to the innkeeper of the village. Both of them assured me that he (my friend) had gone for a voyage round the world. (Conan Doyle)

Indirect questions.

Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether.

I said to her, "Have you lived here	I asked herif she had lived there
long?"	long.

She asked if she knew him. (Bennett)

An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question.

 

I said to her, "Where do you live?"

I asked her where she lived.

 

I asked her where she was going and where her friends were. (Ch. ВгоШё)

If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is not always strictly observed.

He asked, "Who is that man?"

who the man was. He asked { who was the man.

The direct question What is the matter? can be converted in two

He asked what was the matter.

He asked what the matter was.

Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the verb to inquire is used.

She called at the office andsaid,"When does the secretary usually come?"

She called at the office andinquiredwhen the secretary usually came.

If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of.

This occurs in bookish style only.

Shesaid to him, "Where does Mrs. Brown live?"

Sheinquired of him where Mrs. Brown lived.

 

In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used.

Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that..., He said in reply... This is not colloquial.