Sentences with Homogeneous Parts

Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence are called homogeneous parts of the sentence. They are linked either by means of coordinating conjunctions or asyndetically.

There can be:

1. Two or more homogeneous subjects to one predicate.

From the edge of the bed came a ripple and whisper. (Wells)

To her extreme relief, her father and sisters appeared. (Dash- wood)

2. Two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject.

(a)Simple predicates.

That gentleman started, stared, retreated, rubbed his eyes, stared again and finally shouted: "Stop, stop!" (Dickens)

(b)A compound verbal modal predicate with homogeneous parts within it.

Thousands of sheets must be printed, dried, cut. (Heym)

(c)A compound verbal aspect predicate with homogeneous parts within it.

First he began to understand and then to speak English.

(d)A compound nominal predicate with several predicatives within it.

The sky was clear, remote, and empty. (Wells)

The above mentioned cases do not cover all possible cases of ho­mogeneous predicates.

3. Two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers to one part of the sentence.

The unlighted, unused room behind the sitting-room seemed to absorb and even intensify the changing moods of the house. (Bennett) (ATTRIBUTES)

He could imitate other people's speech, their accent, their mannerisms, their tone. (Heym) (DIRECT OBJECTS)

He talked of Spain, his sunstroke, Val's horses, their father's health. (Galsworthy) (PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT OBJECTS)

She extended a slender hand and smiled pleasantly and natu­rally. (Wells) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS OF MANNER)

But I saw nothing moving, in earth or sky. (Wells) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS OF PLACE)

 

 

Chapter XVI

WORD ORDER

§ 1. Word order in English is of much greater importance than in Russian. Due to the wealth of inflexions word order in Russian is rather free as the inflexions show the function of each word in a sen­tence. As English words have hardly any inflexions and their relation to each other is shown by their place in the sentence and not by their form, word order in English is fixed. We cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence at will, especially that of the subject and the object.

To illustrate this we will try to change the order of words in the following sentence.

Mrs. Winter sent the little boy with a message to the next village one December day. (Hardy)

If we put the direct object in the first place and the subject in the third, the meaning of the sentence will change altogether because the object, being placed at the head of the sentence, becomes the subject and the subject, being placed after the predicate, becomes the object.

The little boy sent Mrs. Winter with a message to the next village one December day

In Russian such changes of word order are in most cases possible.

Моя сестра видела замечательный фильм в Москве.

Замечательный фильм видела моя сестра в Москве.

So due to the absence of case distinctions word order is practically the only means of distinguishing between the subject and the direct object.

The above sentence may serve as an example of direct word order in an English declarative sentence:

(a) the subject;

(b) the predicate;

(c) objects;

(d) adverbial modifiers.

§ 2. Inverted order of words.

The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate is called inverted order or inversion.

Are you from Canada?

§ 3. Certain types of sentences require the inverted order of words. These are:

1. Interrogative sentences. In most of them the inversion is partial as only part of the predicate is placed before the subject, viz. the auxi­liary or modal verb.

Where did they find her? (Du Maurier)

Can I show you my library? (Greene)

With the verb to have (expressing possession) the auxiliary verb do is used.

Do you have a car?

(The usage of to have without the auxiliary verb is nowadays con­fined to very formal style.)

The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is expressed by the verb to be.

Is he at home?

N о t e 1. No inversion is used when the interrogative word is the subject of the sentence or an attribute to the subject: Who is in the room? Who speaks English here? What photos are lying on the table?

N о t e 2. No inversion can be used in general questions in informal style: You see her often? You’ve got the keys?

 

2. Sentences introduced by there.

There is nothing marvellous in what Jam is going to relate. (Dickens)

Into the lane where he sat there opened three or four garden gates. (Dickens)

3. Compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or Either.

"Most of these military men are good shots," observed Mr. Snod- grass, calmly; "but so are you, ain't you?" (Dickens)

Their parents, Mr. and Mrs. R., escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons. (Daily Worker)

4. Simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish.

Be it so!

Gentle reader, may you never feel what I then felt.

May your eyes never shed such stormy, heart-wrung tears as poured from mine. (Ch. Bronte)

§ 4. The inverted order of words is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent position, i. e. when it either opens the sentence or is withdrawn to the end of the sentence so as to produce a greater effect. So word order often becomes a means of emphasis, thus acquiring a stylistic function.

In this case inversion is not due to the structure of the sentence but to the author's wish to produce a certain stylistic effect.

1. Inversion occurs when an adverbial modifier opens the sen­tence.

Here we must distinguish the following cases:

(a)Adverbial modifiers expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, and the subject often has a lengthy modifier.

In an open barouche, the horses of which had been taken out, stood a stout old gentleman in a blue coat and bright buttons. (Dickens)

On a chair — a shiny leather chair displaying its horsehair through a hole in the top left hand corner — stood a black despatch case. (Galsworthy)

(b)An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning opens the sen­tence. Here belong such adverbial modifiers as: in vain, never; little etc. In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

In vain did the eager Luffey and the enthusiastic struggle⁵ do all that skill and experience could suggest. (Dickens)

Little had I dreamed, when I pressed my face longingly agains Miss Minns's low greenish window-panes, that I would so soon have the honour to be her guest. (Cronin)

Never before and never since, have I known such peace, such a sense of tranquil happiness. (Cronin)

(c)Adverbial modifiers expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now, then, etc. placed at the head of the sentence, if the subject is expressed by a noun.

So wore the day away. (London)

Thus spoke Mr. Pickwick edging himself as near as possible to the portmanteau. (Dickens)

Now was the moment to act.

Then across the evening stillness, broke a blood-curdling yelp, and Montmorency left the boat. (Jerome)

If the subject is a pronoun inversion does not take place.

Thus he thought and crumpled up and sank down upon the wet earth. (London)

(d)Adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by adverbs placed at the head of the sentence, may or may not cause inversion. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Silently and patiently did the doctor bear all this. (Dickens)

Dimly and darkly had the sombre shadows of a summer's night fallen upon all around, when they again reached Dingley Dell. (Dickens)

But:

And suddenly the moon appeared, young and tender, floating up on her back from behind a tree. (Galsworthy)

Speedily that worthy gentleman appeared. (Dickens)

(f) An adverbial modifier preceded by so is placed at the head of the sentence.

So beautifully did she sing that the audience burst into ap­plause.

2. Inversion occurs when the emphatic particle only, the adverbs hardly, scarcely (correlated with the conjunction when), the adverb no sooner (correlated with the conjunction than), or the conjunction nor °Pen the sentence. If there is inversion the auxiliary do must be used if ⁽he predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Only once did he meet his match in tennis.

In only one respect has there been a decided lack of progress in the domain of medicine, that is in the time it takes to become a qualified practitioner. (Leacock)

I do not care to speak first. Nor do I desire to make trouble for another. (Cronin)

No sooner had Aunt Julie received this emblem of departure than a change came over her... (Galsworthy)

Scarcely was one long task completed when a guard unlocked our door. (London)

3. Inversion occurs when the sentence begins with the word here which is not an adverbial modifier of place but has some demonstra­tive force.

"Here is my card, Sir," replied Mr. Pickwick. (Dickens) — «Вот моя визитная карточка, сэр», — ответил мистер Пиквик.

Here comes my brother John. — Вот идет мой брат Джон.

If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun the order of words is direct.

"Here he is!" said Sam rising with great glee. (Dickens) — «Вот он!» — радостно сказал Сэм, вставая.

"Here we are!" exclaimed that gentleman. (Dickens) — «Вот и мы!» — воскликнул этот джентльмен.

4. Inversion occurs when postpositions denoting direction open the sentence and the subject is expressed by a noun. Here belong such words as in, out, down, away, up, etc. This order of words makes the speech especially lively.

Out went Mr. Pickwick's head again. (Dickens)

The wind carries their voices — away fly the sentences like little narrow ribbons. (Mansfield)

Suddenly in bounced the landlady: "There's a letter for you, Miss Moss." (Mansfield)

But if the subject is a pronoun there is no inversion: Down he fell.

Her skirt flies up above her waist; she tries to beat it down, but it is no use — up it flies. (Mansfield)

5. Inversion occurs when an objcct or an adverbial modifi^cr expressed by a word-group with not аor many a... opens the sen­tence.

In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Not a hansom did I meet with in all my drive. (London)

Not a hint, however, did she drop about sending me to school.(Ch. Bronte)

Many a dun had she talked to and turned away from her fa­ther's door. (Thackeray)

Many a time had he watched him digging graves in the church­yard. (Dickens)

6. Inversion often occurs when a predicative expressed by an adjec­tive or by a noun modified by an adjective or by the pronoun such opens the sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite pronoun).

Violent was Mr. Weller's indignation as he was borne along. (Dickens)

Such is life, and we are but as grass that is cut down, and put into the oven and baked. (Jerome) Sweet was that evening. (Ch. ВгоШё)

Inversion is very common in clauses of concession where the predi­cative is followed by the conjunction as.

Great as was its influence upon individual souls, it did not seri­ously affect the main current of the life either of the church or of the nation. (Wakeman)

However, when the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows the subject.

Bright eyes they were. (Dickens)

A strange place it was. (Dickens)

Starved and tired enough he was. (Ch. Bronte)

Miserable as he was on the steamer, a new misery came upon him. (London)

7. Inversion is also found in conditional clauses introduced without any conjunction when the predicate is expressed by was, were, had, could or should.

Even were they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to enrich herself. (Hardy)

He soon returned with food enough fur half-a-dozen people and two bottles of wine — enough to last them for a day or more, should any emergency arise. (Hardy)

Yates would have felt better, had the gesture of a few kind words to Thorpe been permitted him. (Heym)

It must be borne in mind that emphatic order does not necessari­ly mean inversion; emphasis may be also achieved by the prominent position of some part of the sentence without inversion, i. e. without placing the predicate before the subject.^[6]

Here we shall only mention a peculiar way of making almost any part of the sentence emphatic. This is achieved by placing it is or it was before the part of the sentence which is to be emphasized and a clause introduced by the relative pronoun who or that, by the conjunction that or without any connective after it.

So it's you that have disgraced the family. (Voynich)

It is not in Mr. Rochester he is interested. (Ch. Bronte)

Father appreciated him. It was on father's suggestion that he went to law college. (London)

 

§ 5. Position of the object.

The usual position of the object in declarative sentences is after the predicate (see Chapter XV, § 26). However, in exclamatory sentences the direct object may occupy the first place.

What wonderfully blue eyes you have, Ernest! (Wilde)

 

 

This position of the object generally does not cause inversion, except in poetry, high prose, and negative exclamatory sentences.

Thee would I spare — nay more — would save thee now! (Byron)

Passage after passage did he explore, room after room did he peep into! (Dickens)

In declarative sentences the front position of the object serves the purpose of emphasis. In Russian this position of the object is common (e. g. Волейболом он увлекался в юности, а теперь играет только в теннис); in English it occurs but seldom.

A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. (Ch. ВгоШё)

Honey she had in plenty out of her own hives. (Hardy)

 

^[1] The prominent position of each part of the sentence will be treated in paragraphs dealing with the place of different parts of the sentence.

 

As a rule this prominent position of the object causes no inversion except when the object is expressed by word-groups with not a... or many a... (see §4.5).

The direct object acquires some prominence when it is separated from the predicate by some secondary part of the sentence — generally an adverbial modifier or a prepositional indirect object. We may call this the back position of the object.

She produced from her pocket a most housewifely bunch of keys. (Ch. ВгоШё)

I had at heart a strange and anxious thought. (Ch. Bront§)

Cowperwood smiled as he saw in the morning papers the an­nouncement of the passage of each ordinance granting him a franchise. (Dreiser)

As is seen from the above examples this occurs when the object has an attribute.

The front position of the indirect object in declarative sentences is rare. The prepositional indirect object is more common in this position, especially in colloquial English.

Of his love he would tell her nothing. (Voynich)

To Martin the future did not seem so dim. Success trembled just before him. (London)

Sometimes the front position of the prepositional indirect object causes inversion.

To this circumstance may be attributed the fact that none of the letters reached my hand. (Dickens)

 

§ 6. Position of the attribute.

I. The usual place of the attribute expressed by an adjective, noun, pronoun, or participle is before the word it modifies.

What extraordinary ideas you have about the way to behave to a woman! (Wilde)

With most of such attributes the order in which they follow each °ther is generally free, i. e. it can be easily changed.

Amelia Sedley had such a kindly, smiling, tender, generous heart of her own as won the love of everybody who came near her. (Thackeray)

However, with some attributes the order in which they follow each other is more or less fixed.

Attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality come next to the noun modified.

Rawdon preferred the quiet little Belgian city to either of the more noisy capitals. (Thackeray).

Two years of married life had not lengthened her short dark chestnut hair. (Galsworthy)

When two or more attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality refer to the same noun the order is as follows:

various	age	colour	material	nationality
		red		Turkish	slippers
		black	lacy		dress
	old	blue			kimono
pleasant	young				man

 

E. g.

3 2 3 1

She had brought her a bright yellow spotted silk blouse and purple Angora sweater. (M. Dickens)

 

It is interesting to note that the adjective little often corresponds to Russian diminutive suffixes in such words as паренек, братишка, ручка, комнатка. In this case as well as when little denotes age, it is placed immediately before the noun unless there are attributes denot­ing colour or nationality.

He was naked and painted blue and yellow in stripes — a jolly little chap. (Galsworthy)

He was a little like Jolly, but eager-looking and less formal.- altogether a very interesting little brother. (Galsworthy)

But:

Mrs. Inchbare's unloveable hair clung fast round her head in wiry little yellow curls. (Collins)

A fortnight after it took place, he asked her where was her little French watch and chain she used to wear. (Thackeray)

II. Post-position of the attribute.

There are some cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal place, i. e. when it is not emphatic.

1. Most adjectives in -able and -ible are generally placed after the noun, especially when the noun is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective in the superlative degree: sufferings unspeakable, the only person visible, with all the solemnity possible, the most interesting thing imaginable.

However, a few adjectives with the same suffixes stand before the noun they modify.

He is the only reasonable man here.

She is a sensible little girl.

2. In some stock phrases the adjective is placed after the noun:

wealth untold — несметные богатства

from times immemorial — с незапамятных времен

generations unborn — грядущие поколения

court martial — военно-полевой суд

sum total — общая сумма

four years running — четыре года подряд

the first person singular — первое лицо единственного числа

the second person plural — второе лицо множественного числа

 

3. The adjectives proper (собственно, как таковой) and present (присутствующий) are placed after the noun.

We shan't find anything about sculpture in this book, it deals with architecture proper. — В этой книге мы не найдем ничего о скульптуре, она посвящена архитектуре как таковой. All the people present welcomed Paul Robeson enthusiasti­cally. — Все присутствующие восторженно приветствовали Поля Робсона.

These meanings of proper and present are not to be confused with the meanings of proper and present when used in pre-position, e.g.

This is not a proper answer to a question of this kind.

Our present task is to preserve peace in the world.

4. Attributes expressed by cardinal numerals denoting the place of the object in a series always follow the noun modified. No article is used in this case: page ten, tram number six, room two.

5. Adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns.

I'd like to read something very interesting.

There is nothing extraordinary in her dress.

I'd like to speak with somebody very clever on the subject.

6. Attributes expressed by prepositional phrases follow the noun modified.

As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son Francis Nicholas. (Cronin)

Besides the cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal (unemphatic) place, there are a few instances when the post­position of an attribute expressed by an adjective serves the purpose of emphasis.

It was with a conscience uneasy that Edwin shut the front door one night a month later. (Bennett)

In this example we can easily put the attribute before the word modified, but then it will not be prominent.

Whereas the post-position of a single adjective is rather rare, two or more adjectives are often placed after the word modified for the sake of emphasis: these adjectives may or may not be joined by a conjunction.

He gave Annette a look furtive and searching. (Galsworthy)

("He gave Annette a furtive and searching look" would sound less emphatic.)

All sorts of fancies bright and dark tenanted my mind. (Ch. Вtontё)

When two or more attributive adjectives are placed in post-position, their connection with the noun they modify is often loose, i. e. they become detached and are consequently separated by a comma.

When I looked up... there stood the widow, pale, grave, and amazed. (Ch. Bronte)

The boy inherited his own eyes, large, brilliant and black (E. Bronte)

When an attribute expressed by an adjective modifies a proper noun or a personal pronoun, it mostly stands in loose connection to it whether it is placed in pre-position or in post-position.

Clare, restless, went out into the dusk. (Hardy)

Pale and constrained, he walked into the room and took his seat at the window. (Cronin)

 

§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers.

An adverbial modifier hardly ever separates the direct object from the predicate. It stands either before the predicate or after the direct object.

Helen heard me patiently to the end. (Ch. Bront§)

We could also very well say: " Helen patiently heard me to the end," but no other position of the adverbial modifier is possible here, unless it is meant to be emphatic; in this case it is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

However, an adverbial modifier separates the direct object from its verb when the object has an attribute (see § 5).

He knew instinctively the principles of "pyramiding" and "kit­ing". (Dreiser)

He could read English but he saw there an alien speech. (Lon­don)

1. An adverbial modifier of time is generally placed either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived, and the rest of the week was spent breaking them into the routine. (Lon­don)

Probably we shall try tomorrow. (Heym)

Adverbial modifiers expressed by the adverbs now and then can be placed in nearly any position.

Tess then remembered that there would have been time for this. (Hardy)

Indeed, anything untoward was now sedulously kept from James (Galsworthy)

We now slowly ascended a drive and came upon the long front of a house. (Ch. Bronte)

 

Note. The hour is generally mentioned before a more general adverbial modifier of time such as day, night, evening, morning.

At nine in the evening Badly White... opened the door to the room and poked his head in. (Maltz)

 

2. An adverbial modifier of place generally stands either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

Down in the mill yard a Bessemer furnace was blowing flame into the sky. (Maltz)

Geodin led the guests into the parlour. (O. Henry)

There it was all spiritual. Here it was all material and meanly material. (London)

... a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there. (London)

However, an adverbial modifier of place sometimes comes between the predicate and the prepositional object.

He emerged from the theatre with the first of the crowd. (Lon­don)

Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and purpose:

I am going to the country tomorrow.

Well, they only kept up there about an hour but that was sure a long time. (Maltz)

Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet for the first floor landing. (M. Dickens)

3.The place of the adverbial modifier of frequency is more fixed than that of other adverbial modifiers which enjoy a certain freedom of position. As a rule they precede the predicate verb in a simple tense form but follow the verb to be and all the modal verbs. In a compound tense form they follow the first auxiliary.

No one ever loved me. (London)

Lily would complain that she always told Jane everything she knew. (Herbert)

She was always on the point of telling him the truth.

As for Charlie, he needed frequently to have a confidant. (S. Lewis)

Don't go worrying about what may never happen.

He can never leave out an irreligious finale. (Lindsay)

I'd just love to come, but Francis and I can't ever be away to­gether. (Galsworthy)

She cared for Ailen more than she had ever cared for any of her children. (M. Dickens)

However, when they are emphasized they stand before the verb to be.

You were awfully good about being pushed up here, but then you always are good about the things that happen to you. (M. Dickens)

The adverbial modifier expressed by the adverbs sometimes and generally may be placed either before or after the verb.

For he sometimes thought that, unless he proclaimed to the world what had happened to him, he would never again feel quite in possession of his soul. (Galsworthy)

And I got so lonely here sometimes. (Dreiser)

In interrogative sentences adverbial modifiers of frequency come immediately after the subject.

Did you ever have shoes like that? (Abrahams)

Does he often come to see you?

Adverbial modifiers of frequency sometimes occupy the first place. This position generally does not cause inversion.

Often he had asked her to come and pass judgement on his junk. (Galsworthy)

Occasionally a small band of people followed the preachers to their mission. (Dreiser)

(For the emphatic position of the adverbial modifier never see §4. 1 b.)

4. The most frequent position of an adverbial modifier of manner is after the predicate if the verb is intransitive, and after the direct object if the verb is transitive.

"You needn't worry about me," Louise said stoutly. (M. Dick­ens)

Cokane shakes hands effusively with Sartorius. (Shaw)

An adverbial modifier of manner generally stands between the predicate-verb and the prepositional indirect object though it is also found after the object.

She leaned lightly against his shoulder. (London)

Gwendolen... though I asked most distinctly for bread and but­ter, you have given me cake. (Wilde)

Very often, however, an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb stands immediately before the predicate.

... Bessie was already gone, and had closed the nursery door upon me. I slowly descended. (Ch. Вrontё)

Then it occurred to him that with this letter she was entering that very state which he himself so earnestly desired to quit. (Galsworthy)

In compound tense forms an adverbial modifier of manner ex­pressed by an adverb generally comes after the last auxiliary.

These ladies were deferentially received by Miss Temple. (Ch. Bronte)

Mr. Ernest has been suddenly called back to town. (Wilde)

(For the emphatic position of adverbial modifiers of manner see §4.1 d.)

5.Adverbial modifiers of degree always precede the predicate; if the verb is in a compound tense-form they follow the first auxiliary.

I entirely agree with you.

He has quite forgotten about the concert.

6.An adverbial modifier of degree expressed by the adverb enough gene­rally follows the adjective it modifies, but may follow or precede a noun.

He is clever enough but very lazy.

When enough modifies a noun it may either follow or precede it.

I have time enough to do it

I have enough time to do it.

ADDITIONAL REMARKS

The word please normally begins the sentence or finishes it.

Please, bring me the book.

Bring me the book, please.

Whereas in Russian the word пожалуйста may occupy any posi­tion:

Пожалуйста, принесите мне книгу.

Принесите, пожалуйста, мне книгу.

Принесите мне, пожалуйста, книгу.

Принесите мне книгу, пожалуйста.

In polite requests starting with modal verbs it is often used in the middle of the sentence:

Could you please call me at nine?

May I please explain my reasons?

 

Chapter XVII

 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

The Compound Sentence

§ 1. A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

(a) syndetically, i. e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, neverthe­less, yet, still, therefore, etc.).

The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted. (Lindsay)

He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. (Cronin)

(b)asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or conjunctive ad­verb.

The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. (Collins)

The month was July, the morning fine, the glass-door stood ajar, through it played a fresh breeze... (Ch. Вrоntё)

He uttered no other words of greeting; there was too strong a rush of mutual consciousness. (Eliot)

§ 2. We can distinguish the following types of coordination:

l. Copulative coordination (соединительная связь), expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.

It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it. (Dreiser)

Mr. Home did not lift his eyes from his breakfast-plate for about two minutes, nor did he speak. (Ch. Bronte)

Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. (London)

2. Disjunctive coordination (разделительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.

He knew it to be nonsense or it would have frightened him. (Galsworthy)

Don't come near me with that look else I'll knock you down. (Eliot)

... don't fret, and don't expect too much of him, or else he will feel you to be troublesome... (Ch. Вrontё)

... either our union must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. (Ch. Bronte)

A painter has to be forbidding, Dad, otherwise people would think he was cadging. (Galsworthy)

3.Adversative coordination (противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, while, ^[7] whereas and the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.

The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps. (Dickens)

He had a glass eye which remained stationary, while the other eye looked at Reinhardt. (Heym)

The old school-room was now a sitting room... whereas one of the old nurseries was now the modern school-room. (Trollope)

I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I wept. (Ch. Bronte)

4.Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctionsfor; so and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.

For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding state­ment. Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly introduce coor­dinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.²

^[1] The conjunction while is not always coordinating. It may be a subordi­nating conjunction introducing adverbial clauses of time.

² Cause, consequence and result may also be expressed by subordinate clauses, introduced by subordinating conjunctions.

 

There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, for he was strangely grave and looked ill. (Dickens)

After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy between them. (Priestley)

Hers (Lillian's) was not a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer passionately. (Dreiser)

Note. There are cases when the conjunction for expresses relations ap­proaching those of subordination, i.e. when it introduces a clause showing the reason of the action expressed in the preceding clause. In these cases the conjunction for is very close in meaning to the conjunction because.

She (Lillian) was not helpless, for she had money of her own. (Dreiser)

But even here for is not a subordinating conjunction, as the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then, as it were on second thought, another statement with a causal meaning is added.

The Complex Sentence

§ 3. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Note. This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause.

(For a detailed treatment of this phenomenon see § 4, 5.)

 

2. Syndetically, i. e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.

There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (Cronin) (CONJUNCTION)

All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (Cronin) (CONNECTIVE)

2.Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective.

I wish you had come earlier. (Heym)

Circumstances try the metal a man is really made of. (Collins)

A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause.

His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. (Cronin)

As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together. (Dickens)

It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night. (Collins)

A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other.

They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. (Collins)

What Mr. Pancks knew about the Dorrit family, what more he really wanted to find out, and why he should trouble his busy head about them at all, were questions that often perplexed him. (Dickens)

A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.

He never asked why Erik was giving up academic work. (Wil­son)

I don't mind making the admission... that there are certain forms of so-called humor, or, at least, fun,which I am quite unable to appreciate. (Leacock)

I think I have noticedthat they have an inconsistent way of speak­ing about her, as if she had made some great self-interested success marrying Mr. Gowan (Dickens)

According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses.

§ 4. Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.

What I want to do is to save us both. (Dreiser)

If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called intro­ductory it is used in the principal clause.

It was always possible that they might encounter some one. (Dreiser)

Note. There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the sub­ordinate clause is a predicative clause.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the fol­lowing ways:

(1) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. (Heym)

Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff, is more than I can tell. (Collins)

(2) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, what­ever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).

What was done could not be undone. (Hardy)

Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt... (Eliot)

It's a grand thing when you see the working class in action: (Lindsay)

(3) asyndetically.

It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. (Eliot)

Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by а comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.

Who her mother was, and how she came to die in that forlornness, were questions that often pressed on Eppie's mind. (Eliot)

It was plain, pitiably plain, that he was aware of his own defect of memory, and that he was bent on hiding it from the observation of his friends. (Collins)

Note. Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an emphatic construction; however, in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences.

It was his uncle who spoke first. (Priestley)

It was there that the offensive was to begin. (Hemingway)

It was very seldom that I uttered more than monosyllables in Dr. John's presence. (Ch. Bront§)

It was not till she was quite close that he could believe her to be Tess. (Hardy)

§ 5. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i. e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

1. by means of the conjunctions that, if whether; as if.

Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. (Leacock)

The thing to be settle on now is whether anything can be doneto save him. (Dreiser)

It was as if these men and women had matured. (Heym) It seems as if all these years I've been living under false pre­tences. (Cronin)

I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. (Eliot)

2. by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).

But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. (Eliot)

The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. (Dreis­er)

That was why you were not one bit frightened. (Eliot)

 

(с) asyndetically.

Another thing... was they had nurse Andrews staying on withthpm that week. (Mansfield)

As a rule predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.

But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over you^ and that you ought to give her the guardianship of a brother's presence. (Eliot)

N о t e. In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

What we want to know is what the French are going to do now. (Greene)

 

§ 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate- verb of the principal clause.

I don't know what you are talking about. (Gowand D'Ussean)

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.

I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. (Leacock)

[1] ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back totown. (Collins)

Mr. Bruff folded up the will, and then looked my way apparently wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt. (Collins)

Soames averted his eyes and became conscious that Winifred and he were alone. (Galsworthy)

They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth. (Dreiser)

The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedd ing (Trollope)

She was aware that someone else was there. (Eliot)

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the fol­lowing ways:

(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

You know quite well, Ariadne, that I have not an ounce of pet tishness in my disposition. (Shaw)

Jane... wondered if Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another. (Lindsay)

Time will show whether I am right or wrong. (Collins)

(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).

I'll do just what I say. (Dreiser)

I half rose, and advanced my head to see how she was occupied. (Ch. Вrоntё)

He wondered why he should look back... (Wilson)

I don't know where he developed his prose style, probably in the best of schools, the open air. (Nichols)

(c) asyndetically.

He said there was nothing much the matter with me. (Maxwell)

An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.

I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot)

I found it hard to keep my mind on what the colonel was saying. (Greene)

 

An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it.

I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. (Trollope)

As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.

What I used not to like, I long for now. (Eliot)

What happened then I do not know. (Conan Doyle)

If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

I can't tell you what tricks they performed, or how they did it. (Collins)

N о t e. A sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.

"I don't deserve to be mocked at," she said in a stifled voice. (Lindsay)

"Well," I thought, "at any rate, judging by the smell, the food must be good." (Mansfield)

§ 7. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones.

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attribu­tive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.

The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (Conrad) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

The fortunate fact that the rector's letter did not require an im­mediate answer would give him time to consider. (Hardy) (AT­TRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE)

Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically — by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses only syndetically — by means of conjunctions.

§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non- restrictive or descriptive.

1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

1. relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as¹);

2. relative adverbs (where, when);

3. asyndetically

^[1] As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.

 

You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in simple things. (Maugham)

... but there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider, public life. (Eliot)

All that could be done had been done. (Dreiser)

He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria. (Hichens)

And he is now come to that stage of life when a man like him should enter into public affairs. (Eliot)

They spoke no more all the way back to the lodging where Fanny and her uncle lived. (Dickens)

There was simply nothing else he could do. (Coppard) I think my father is the best man I have ever known. (Shaw)

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non- restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases intro­duced syndetically by means of:

(a) relative pronouns (who, which);

(b) relative adverbs (where, when).

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. (Cro­nin)

She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo for miles. (Hardy)

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one. (Cronin)

The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an at­tributive relative non-restrictive clause.

He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve. (Dreiser)

A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continu- ative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manston was not indoors, which was a relief to her. (Hardy) But to-day... he had slept only in snatches, which was worse tha n not sleeping at all. (Cronin)

For this purpose they probably lowered the bridge, which can be done quite noiselessly. (Conan Doyle)

Note. The connection between the attributive continuative clause and the principal clause is so loose that it is doubtful whether we have here a subordinate or a coordinate clause; it may be considered a borderline case between subordination and coordination.