The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.

Sadie brought them in and went back to the door. (Mansfield)

... the blinds were down in the dining-room and the lights turned on — and all the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)

The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn't really cruel, he's just thoughtless. And Fabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about the human race. And he's right.

(Wilson)

§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:

(1)simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).

Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with preposi­tions, adverbs, and pronouns.

(2)derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).

(3)compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.

(4)composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (thatX on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).

Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.

If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the ques­tion would have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy)

... nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte) Her son had not only come home, but he had come home a good person. (Abrahams)

Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither smallness nor meanness. (London)

He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whether he had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know. (London)

§ 3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:

(1)coordinating conjunctions;

(2)subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homo­geneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).

1. He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn't any more; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)

2. He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wil­son)

3. Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right and that other human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they. (London)

4. Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi- land apologized for his mistake. But he was not as impressed as Erik had wanted him to be. (Wilson)

Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or de­pendent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogene­ous parts (c).

1. When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)

2. He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)

3. My look or something else must have struck her as offen­sive, for she spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)

 

Coordinating conjunctions.

The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to thei r meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences. There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.

 

1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both... and, not

only... but (also), neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote

that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).

There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky the blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Galswor­thy)

His whole face was colourless rock; his eye was both spark and flint. (Ch. Bronte)

I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill, nor do I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely... (Wells)

... but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well as receive; and she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)

... the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnight not only in the ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms, but in lead­ing articles and letters. (Shaw)

He went on as a statue would: that is, he neither spoke nor moved. (Ch. Bront§)

2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else. Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement and another.

The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, byway of the Old Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)

... either his furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any wit­nesses of his Waterloo flight. (Thackeray)

He was compelled to think this thought, or else there would not be any use to strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)

"You go and fetch her down, Tom," said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply- his perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the lad had been hard upon "the little un", else she would never have left his side... (Eliot)

3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas. Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted with or set against another.

Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered with silent triumph and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)

His nerves had become blunted, numb, while his mind was filled with weird visions and delicious dreams. (London)

4. Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for. Causative-con­secutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.

He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night; so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff. (Dickens)

His eyes must have had in them something of George Forsyte's sardonic look; for her gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face went stony. (Galsworthy)

The conjunction for is a border-line case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it approaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:

There was moreover time to spare, for Fleur was to meet him at the Gallery at four o'clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)

Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.

Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, "I don't know what came over me." "You know as well as I do and that's why we're going away," Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)

The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as well as in compound sentences is widely spread.

But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused, and raised his head. (Cronin)

The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... or are more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.

There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither large nor small... (London)

... in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only neces­sary to make the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)

... there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been either amusement or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)

Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:

... there stood a white house within a walled garden, and in the pantry of this we found a store of food. (Wells) (COPULATIVE)

You are nineteen, Jon, and I am seventy-two. How are we to understand each other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)

When he read those books something happened to him, and he went out of doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galswor­thy) (CONSECUTIVE)

The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.

Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest. (Dickens) (ADVERSATIVE)

After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy) (DISJUNCTIVE)

The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:

He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, for the least thing would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy) (CAUSATIVE)

From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat out of the bag, for he rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)

 

§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.

Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subjcct clauses, ob­ject clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.¹

Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicati^ve clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.

That Ruth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminish her in Martin's eyes. (London) (SUBJEct CLAUSE)

See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.

 

What I mean is that you're the first man I ever met who's willing to admit out loud to a woman that he thinks she's better than he is. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

He looked to the south and knew that somewhere beyond those blue hills lay the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

He walked into the Green Park that he might cross to Victoria Station and take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)

He bailed wildly at first, splashing himself and flinging the water so short a distance that it ran back into the pool. (London) (AD­VERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)

The conjunction if introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:

He was anxious to see if she had relapsed since the previous evening. (Dickens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

If the man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)

The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:

These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (Lon­don) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

That day had decreased the distance between him and the ship by three miles; the next day by two — for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COM­PARISON)

The conjunction while may express both coordination and subor­dination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогда как; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case it is translated as в то время как, пока).

Older men probably resented him while others of his own gene­ration could feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson) (COORDINATING CONJUNCTION)

While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Am­sterdam coming close behind them. (Dodge) (SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION)

Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences, they join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison, such as as if as though are frequently used i_n simple sentences.

He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said (Ch. Bronte)

He seemed faint and dizzy and put out his free hand while he reeled, as though seeking support against the air. (London)

The subordinating conjunctions though and if are also used in simple sentences:

Though alone, he was not lost. (London)

Next, he sheered to the left, to escape the foot of the bed; but this sheer, if too generous, brought him against the corner of the table. (London)

Subordinating conjunctions of time are rarely used in simple sen­tences. In that case they are mostly used with participles:

That she was one of those women — not too common in the Anglo-Saxon race — born to be loved and to love, who when not loving are not living, had certainly never even occurred to him. (Galsworthy)

Only rarely does a subordinating conjunction join homogeneous members:

He was cheerful though tired.

 

Chapter XIV

 

THE PARTICLE

 

§ 1. The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence.

 

§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:

1. Limiting particles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely,

etc.

I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)

Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your hus­band? (Galsworthy)

Soames was but following in the footsteps of his father. (Galswor­thy)

Her name alone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptiblfe to the charm of words. (Galsworthy)

He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. (Lon­don)

She (Ruth) thought she was merely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic about it. (London)

They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy)

He barely acknowledged the young fellow's salute. (Galswor­thy)

2. Intensifying particles: simply, still Just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even, etc.

He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Galsworthy)

He just did dislike him. (Galsworthy)

Thev did not even know that he was married. (Galsworthv)

If Jo were only with him! (Galsworthy)

But out there he'll simply get bored to death. (Galsworthy)

3. Connecting particles: too, also.

Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in. He also takes off his hat and overcoat (Shaw)

He (James) was silent. Soames, too, was silent. (Galsworthy)

4. Negative particles: not, never.

No, he was not afraid of that. (Galsworthy)

She looked round her. Nothing — not a thing, no tiniest distur­bance of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy)

I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw)

Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.

That's just his way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)

Why, I think, that's a terrible price to ask for it, just awful. (Dreiser) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

French people only come to England to make money. (Galswor­thy) (LIMITING PARTICLE)

If only there were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.

 

Part II SYNTAX

 

 

Chapter XV

 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

 

§ 1. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure con­forms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicat­ing something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker's attitude to it.

§ 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles:

(а)according to the purpose of the utterance;

(b)according to the structure.

According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences.

I. The declarative sentence.

A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. In a declarative sentence the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation.

Charles Dickens was born at Landport, Portsmouth. (Laing)

 

They don't want anything from us — not even our respect. (Douglas)

There is a great difference between English and Russian negative sentences. Whereas in English the predicate of a sentence can have only one negation, in Russian it can have more than one.

He does not go anywhere.

He never goes anywhere.

Он ни куда не ходит.

2. The interrogative sentence.

An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means o«inversion, i. e. by placing the predicate (or part of it) before the subject

(unless the subject of the interrogative sentence is an interrogative word, _in which case there is no inversion; see Chapter XVI, § 3).

There are four kinds of questions:

(a) General questions requiring the answer yes or no and spoken with a rising intonation. They are formed by placing the auxiliary or modal verb before the subject of the sentence.

Do you like art?

Can you speak English?

With the verb to have (expressing possession) the auxiliary verb do/does is used.

Do you have a car?

The usage of to have without the auxiliary verb is nowadays con­fined to very formal style.)

If the predicate is expressed by the verbs to be used in a simple tense form, the question is formed by placing the predicate before the subject.

Is he at home?

Sometimes such questions have a negative form and express as­tonishment or doubt.

Haven't you seen him yet?

In Russian the particles разве, неужели are used in such ques­tions. General questions are sometimes rhetoric questions, they do not require any answer, but are veiled statements expressing some kind demotion.

Can you commit a whole country to their own prisons? Will you

erect a gibbet in every field and hang men like scarecrows? (Byron)

In colloquial English questions may be formed without any inver­sion.

You know him?

You like the book?

(b) Special questions beginning with an interrogative word and spo~ ken with a falling intonation. The order of words is the same as in general questions, but the interrogative word precedes the auxiliary verb.

Where do you live?

 

When the interrogative word is the subject of the interrogative sentence or an attribute to the subject, the order of words is that of a statement, i. e. no inversion is used.

Who lives in this room?

Whose pen is on the table?

(c) Alternative questions, indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling intonation in the second part.

Do you live in town or in the country?

(d) Disjunctive questions requiring the answer jes or no and con­sisting of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part is spoken with a falling intonation and the second part with a rising intonation.

You speak English, don't you?

You are not tired, are you?

Note. With the first person singular of the verb to be, besides am I not-- aren 7 7?is very widely used, especially in British English, whereas ain 7 /•¹ usually considered nonstandard, is somewhat more current in American English than in British English.

I'm clever, am I not (aren't I)?

 

3. The imperative sentence.¹

An imperative sentence serves to induce a person to do something, so it expresses a command, a request, an invitation, etc. Commands are characterized by a falling tone.

Come to the blackboard!

Stop talking!

Requests and invitations are characterized by a rising intonation. Open the door, please!

Do come to see me tomorrow!

4. The exclamatory sentence.

An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feel­ing. It often begins with the words what and how, it is always in the declarative form, i. e. no inversion takes place. It is generally spoken with a falling intonation.

What a lovely day it is!

What fine weather! How wonderful! Beautiful!

 

§ 3. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

A two-member sentence has two members — a subject and a Predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from context.

See the formation of the Imperative Mood (Chapter VII, Mood).

 

Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect (Galsworthy)

A two-member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is com­plete when it has a subject and a predicate.

Young Jolyon could not help smiling. (Galsworthy)

It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sen­tences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue.

Best not to see her again. Best to forget all about her. (Abra­hams)

What were you doing? Drinking. (Shaw)

Who does it for Mr. George? James, of course. (Galsworthy)

Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.

A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete.

One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech.

If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes.

Dusk — of a summer night. (Dreiser)

Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine. (Heym)

The dull pain and the life slowly dripping out of him. (Heym)

The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive.

No! To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price (Galsworthy)

To die out there — lonely, wanting them, wanting home! (Galswor­thy)

 

§ 4. Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the prim^a^ or principal parts is called an unextended sentence.

She is a student.

Birds fly.

Winter!

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or ad­verbial modifiers).

The two native women stole furtive glances at Sarie. (Abra­hams)

The two white overseers... had gone into the hills with the natives to look for stray sheep. (Abrahams)

 

Parts of the Sentence

In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.