Exploration through the ages

New discoveries in science will continue to create a thousand new frontiers for those who still would favour adventure.

Herbert Hoover, American President

 

One of the key reasons for early explorations was probably the need to find food or to move away from areas where climate change caused environmental changes. While modern technology allows water to be stored so that people can stay in areas for longer periods of time, this would not have been so in prehistoric times. When the water ran out, it would be time to move on.

Many of the earliest explorations were therefore probably accidental. More organized exploration began in the Middle East. The first recorded voyage into unknown seas was a four-year expedition around 4,500 years ago, to search for and buy valuable goods, including gold, incense and myrrh.

Some of the earliest sea voyages were undertaken by the Polynesians who had immediate and easy contact with the ocean. As they spread from island to island, their navigational skills and knowledge of the area grew. Later in the 15^th-16^th century the development of the quadrant and other instruments, a better understanding of the functioning of the magnetic compass, as well as improvements in cartography made voyages somewhat less dangerous.

While the original Vikings - from Norway - were initially prepared to loot and plunder throughout Northern Europe, others soon demonstrated a desire to settle in the new lands. Settlements were soon established throughout Europe, and it was found that the previously aggressive settlers were quite the opposite once they had some land and security.

Although the Vikings managed to set foot in North America, they had little idea of what exactly they had achieved. They, like many others, stumbled there thinking they had in fact found just another small island.

Often the explorations of a curious traveller would open the eyes of others to new things that might then be used in their home, country. The success of Marco Polo’s expeditions to Italy, Asia and China inspired many others to follow in his footsteps.

The explorations by Christopher Columbus and other Europeans during the 15th and 16th centuries showed a subtle difference from earlier journeys. A new element in the ethos of the time was a thirst for glory and recognition of the individual, which joined religion and riches as a major factor in exploration.

Trade has provided one of the key reasons for exploration throughout the years. Much of the exploration by Europeans in the 15th and 16th centuries was motivated by commerce and trade in exotic goods, as well as by the need to find faster trade routes. Several governments negotiated treaties so that their nationals could trade in other countries.

Massive changes were now taking place in Europe, with new ideas affecting many traditional areas of life. Politics, economics, religion and social organisation were all undergoing huge upheavals. The population grew rapidly, creating an increased demand for food. Among the workforce, there was a trend towards developing a particular expertise, which included a rapid growth in the number of merchants. With growing wealth, the old barter economy was no longer efficient. Instead, there was a demand for gold and other precious metals, some of which was turned into coins and used for buying and selling.

Probably even more prized at this time were spices, which were used for preserving and flavouring meats. This was important at a time when even fresh food, if available, could be rather tasteless. These items, such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves, were only found growing naturally in India and certain areas of the east.

During the 18th century there was a renewed emphasis on exploration for scientific purposes and to improve the stock of information and understanding that was available. European intellectuals became aware of their ignorance about certain aspects of the physical and natural world and were keen to do something about it. Many ocean voyages were on vessels that were basically floating scientific laboratories. They had trained scientists on board, as well as a vast array of equipment and skilled artists and draftsmen to make accurate records of the voyage.

In the 20th century, countries competed to gain prestige. With less and less land to discover and claim, there were races to the North Pole, the South Pole, Everest, the depths of the oceans, the space.

Exploring, investigating and researching space involve a lot of money, time and effort. Governments spend huge resources on space rather than on conditions and people on Earth, deriving so few apparent benefits from it.

Why should mankind explore space? Perhaps the best answer lies in our genetic makeup as human beings. Our distant ancestors moved from the trees into the plains, and on into all possible areas and environments to ensure the success and continuation of not just our own genes, but of the species as a whole. The wider the distribution of a species, the better its chance of survival. Perhaps the best reasons for exploring space is this genetic predisposition to expand wherever possible.

Nearly every successful civilisation has explored, because by doing so, any dangers in surrounding areas can be identified and prepared for. These might be enemies in neighbouring cultures, physical features of the area, a change in the area which might affect food supplies, or any number of other factors. They all pose a real danger, and all can be made less threatening if certain preparations are made. Without knowledge, we may be completely destroyed by the danger. With knowledge, we can lessen its effects.

Exploration also allows minerals and other potential resources to be located. Additional resources are always beneficial when used wisely, and can increase our chances of survival. Even if we have no immediate need of them, they will perhaps be useful later.

Resources may be more than physical assets. Knowledge or techniques acquired through exploration, or preparing to explore, filter from the developers into society at large. The techniques may have medical applications which can improve the length or quality of our lives. Techniques may be social, allowing members of society better to understand those within or outside the culture. Better understanding may lead to more efficient use of resources, or a reduction in competition for resources. We have already benefited from other spin-offs, including improvements in earthquake prediction - which has saved many lives - in satellites used for weather forecasting and in communications systems. Even non-stick saucepans and mirrored sunglasses are by-products of technological developments in the space industry!

While many resources are spent on what seems a small return, the exploration of space allows creative, brave and intelligent members of our species to focus on what may serve to save us. While space may hold many wonders and explanations of how the universe was formed or how it works, it also holds dangers. The chances of a large comet or asteroid hitting the Earth are small, but it could happen in time. Such strikes in the past may account for the extinction of dinosaurs and other species. Human technology is reaching the point where it might be able to detect the possibility of this happening, and enable us to minimise the damage, or prevent it completely, allowing us as a species to avoid extinction. The danger exists, but knowledge can help human beings to survive. Without the ability to reach out across space, the chance to save ourselves might not exist.

In certain circumstances, life on Earth may become impossible: over-population or epidemics, for instance, might eventually force us to find other places to live. While Earth is the only planet known to sustain life, surely the adaptive ability of humans would allow us to inhabit other planets and moons. It is true that the lifestyle would be different, but human life and cultures have adapted in the past and surely could in the future.

The more a culture expands, the less chance there is that it will become extinct. Space allows us to expand and succeed: for the sake of everyone on the Earth, now and in the future, space exploration is essential.

19. Закончите предложения, перефразируя информацию в тексте.

• Prehistoric exploration often resulted from ……………………………………..

• Exploration in the Middle East appears to have been caused by ………………..

• Polynesian exploration was encouraged by ……………………………………...

• Sea exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries was helped by …………………...

• Viking travellers illustrate a change from ………………………………………..

• The Vikings of North America showed a misunderstanding of.………………….

• Marco Polo's travels encouraged ……………………………………………….

• For perhaps the first time, many explorers of the 15th and 16th centuries were interested in ………………………………...

• The 18th century saw an interest in ……………………………….

• Many 18th century voyages were intended ……………………………...

• A newly significant factor in 20th century exploration was ……………………..

 

20. Определите шесть факторов исследований в Европе 15-16 вв. Начните с:

• desire to find ………………………………….

• need for states to ……………………………………..

• necessity to provide food for ………………………………….

• increasing specialisation of ………………………………

• necessity for raw materials ……………………………

• need for various spices ………………………………….

21. Назовите три причины для исследования космоса, упомянутых автором.

• It is natural for us to do so.

• We may find new sources of food.

• It will help us to prevent earthquakes.

• It has side-effects that improve the quality of our lives.

• It may enable us to find alternative homes.

• We will discover whether other planets are inhabited.

 

22. Напишите резюме “Reasons for exploring space”, следуя предложенной структуре (около 100 слов).

One reason for exploring space is……………………………... Exploration will allow us to …………………………….. It is possible that ……………………………... Further, exploration might …………………………………... It will make it possible for us to …………………………………...

 

23. Подготовьте презентацию на одну из следующих тем и представьте её.

• A scientific breakthrough, an invention or a discovery that has revolutionised the way we live (both positive and negative consequences of it).

 

• Current scientific research that is likely to affect our life in the near future.

• Scientific research and governmental control over it: is science subject to tighter public control?

• The first cloned sheep - Dolly (1997) → cloning a human: Should we do this, and Can we? Ethical and moral sides of this issue.

• Nanotechnology: a fake or panacea?

• The way science fiction films portray human cloning: issues raised and discussed.

• Curious inventions in Guiness Book of World Records. Their practical value.

 

24. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

 

The other population grisis

A. It is an unquestioned principle that has dominated international thinking for decades: we live in an overcrowded world teeming with billions of humans who are destined to suffocate our cities and squeeze our planet of its precious resources. Our species is inexorably wrecking Earth: flooding valleys, cutting down forests and destroying the habitats of animals and plants faster than scientists can classify them. Our future is destined to be nasty, brutish, and cramped.

В. Or is it? Now, it seems, population analysts have suddenly started to question the 'self-evident' truth that we are destined eventually to drown under our own weight. While accepting that populations will continue to rise, they point out that this rise will not be nearly as steep or as long-lasting as was once feared. They even claim they can envisage the day when world population numbers will peak and begin to decline.

С. As evidence, statisticians point to a simple, stark fact: people are having fewer and fewer children. In the 1970s, global fertility rates stood at about six children per woman. Today the average is 2.9 and falling. Such a rate will still see the world's population increase to nine billion by 2050, a rise of fifty per cent on today's figure. That is not good news for the planet, but it is far less alarming than the projections of fifteen billion that were once being made. More to the point, statisticians predict that after 2050 the number of humans will go down. Such trends raise two key questions. Why has the rise in world populations started to die out so dramatically? And what will be the consequences of this decline?

D. Answers to the first question depend largely on locality. In Europe, for example, couples will have only one or two children when they might have had three or four in the past. There are various reasons for this. Social analysts pin it on some jumble of female education and fiscal autonomy, secularization, birth control, Sex and the City, a heightened desire for personal freedom, and increasing uncertainty about bringing a child into a world plagued by terrorism, and global warming. In a hyper-individualistic, ultra-commodified culture like ours, parenthood, for better and worse, is less a fact of life than just another lifestyle choice. Women now have their own career options, and are no longer considered failures if they do not marry and produce children in their twenties or thirties. This has taken a substantial number out of the pool of potential mothers. In addition, parents have aspirations for their offspring, choices not available to past generations but which cost money, for example, higher education and travel.

E. These and other pressures have reduced the average birth rate in European countries to 1.4 per couple. Britain, Ireland, Australia, Spain, Italy and dozens of other countries are contending with fertility rates well below replacement levels. Forty per cent of female university graduates in Germany are childless. Given that a country needs a birth rate of 2.1 to maintain its numbers, it is clear to see that in the long term there will be fewer Europeans. The causes of declining numbers in other countries are more varied and more alarming. Russia's population is dropping by almost 750,000 people a year. The causes are alcoholism, breakdown of the public health service, and industrial pollution that has had a disastrous effect on men's fertility. In China, the state enforces quotas of offspring numbers, and it is expected that its population will peak at 1.5 billion by 2019 then go into steep decline. Some analysts suggest the country could lose twenty to thirty per cent of its population every generation. There is also the exodus from the countryside, a trek happening across the globe. Soon half the world's population will have urban homes. But in cities, children become a cost rather than an asset for helping to work the land, and again pressures mount for people to cut the size of their families.

F. Some more nebulous and disputable factors are worth mentioning. Infertility is killing off the secular world. In some countries, where atheism reigned as state policy for generations, the United Nations forecasts extreme declines in population by 2050, ranging, for example, from 22 % for Russia to nearly 50 % for the Ukraine. Secular Western Europe will lose 4 % to 12 % of its population, while the population of the churchgoing United States continues to grow. Is secularism at fault? The numbers do not suggest otherwise. Secularism promotes a more short term and hedonistic attitude towards life. Since secular people have little faith in God or an afterlife, the tendency is for them to adopt the attitude of “Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die”. Of course, not all secular people are like that. But in general, secularism promotes such attitudes.

G. The impact of all this is harder to gauge. In Europe, demographers forecast a major drop in the numbers who will work and earn money, while the population of older people - who need support and help - will soar. So, the urging by a British politician that it is the patriotic duty of women to have children makes sense. There will be no workforce if people do not have children. At present the median age of people is twenty-six; within a hundred years, if current trends continue, that will have doubled. More and more old people will have to be supported by fewer and fewer young people. In China, the problem is worse. Most young Chinese adults have no brothers or sisters and face the prospect of having to care for two parents and four grandparents on their own. Pensions and incomes are simply not able to rise fast enough to deal with the crisis.

H. There are people who cling to the hope that it is possible to have a vibrant economy without a growing population, but mainstream economists are pessimistic. On the other hand, it is clear that reduced human numbers can only be good for the planet in the long term. Until we halt the spread of our own species, the destruction of the last great wildernesses, such as the Amazon, will continue. Just after the last Ice Age, there were only a few hundred thousand humans on Earth. Since then the population has grown ten thousandfold. Such a growth rate, and our imperfect attempts to control it, are bound to lead us into an uncertain future.

 

25. Кратко запишите заголовок для каждого абзаца и обобщающее предложение к нему.

Example:

Paragraph A - The accepted view of the future. The writer outlines gloomy consequences of the overpopulation.

Paragraph В, C etc.

 

26. Круглый стол.

• Research Work. Look for the information on the following topic in various sources of information.

 

• Economic and social causes of low birth rates in Russia.

 

The relevant issues may be useful to consider while discussing the topic:

• Financial and social incentives that the Russian government has announced to ensure a stable population.

• Survey of the Internet discussions of the birth rate issue. Younger generation opinions on the issue.

• Large families is the way out of the population crisis?

• Modern families: a profile of a typical family, its living habits, challenges, prospects.

 

• Arrange the information in the written form.

• Choose a chairperson to lead the discussion.

• Contribute to the discussion.

 

Strategy Point for panel discussion

• Voice opinions you are a party to.

• Take turns to practise reporting your ideas on the issue.

• When you report ideas in discussion, you must not read your source material. It is more usual to summarise or paraphrase the ideas in your own words.

• Listen carefully to the other students’ reports on their reading and make notes on the key points.

• Respond to the arguments of the participants with your own ideas.

• You have to take care to make it very clear to your listeners when you are expressing your own opinions, and when you are reporting ideas you have read or heard about.

• Use a repertoire of expressions for voicing strong agreement, disagreement, and all the shades of opinion in between.

 

Expressing an opinion: If you ask me… If you want my opinion, …	Strong agreement: Absolutely. I couldn’t agree more.	Conceding an argument: Ok, you win. You’ve convinced me.
Hedging: I take your point, but … Yes, but …	Qualified agreement: That’s partly true. I’d go along with that.	Strong disagreement: I totally disagree. On the contrary …

 

27. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

A.

A high proportion of employers appear to favour genetic testing of employees. The aim is to identify workers at risk of developing job-related illnesses and those likely to suffer from heart disease, who may retire early.

B.

Artificial intelligence is on its way. Currently, a small personal computer has about the same power as an insect's brain. On present trends, however, within fifteen years a small PC will have as much computing power as a human brain.

C.

Studies on mice indicated that increasing the metabolic rate and eliminating free radicals from the body made them live significantly longer. Applied to humans, the increased life span would mean an extra thirty years of life.

D.

Scientists may one day be able to reduce the power of hurricanes, or move them onto a different course. This could be done by changing the temperatures in and around the hurricane, possibly using solar power beamed in from orbiting satellites.

E.

Stem cells could be taken from a human ovary and re-implanted many years later. This would enable a woman to freeze the cells when she is young, with the option of giving birth when she is much older - possibly in her sixties.

 

28. Определите проблемные вопросы по каждому пункту. Следуйте приведенному примеру (пункт А).

BENEFITS	MORAL ISSUES	DRAWBACKS	UNEXPECTED CONSEQUENCES
A It could save money in the long run.     B …………….	A It will lead to a new form of discrimination. B ………………….	A Employees may resent it.   B …………………..	A It will create a new job.   B ……………………

 

 

Arguing for: I think it's a good idea because..., There's a lot to be said for it, for instance...

Arguing against: I'm completely against it because..., There are too many drawbacks/dangers such as...

Hedging: I'm not sure. You could say..., but..., it's hard to say. One way of looking at it is..., but...

 

29. Расскажите о себе и своем исследовании. В качестве примера можете использовать следующий текст или план.

Let me introduce myself. My name is … Now I work as an economist in a joint-stock company. I graduated from the Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies in 2013 and got a qualification of an economist-specialist of Finance and Credit.

I am interested in dealing in securities.

I often read such journal as “Money and Credit”, “Money”, “Banks and Banking”.

In order to develop my scientific outlook I have decided to take a master's degree course at the Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies.

This year is quite difficult; I’ve had to combine my work and studies, to attend classes in different disciplines, to read a lot of material to get ready for final examinations.

I prefer dealing with applied sphere of science.

I don’t have any articles published yet, but I’m working at.

I have already started collecting and working up the material for my master’s thesis. My research deals with the Russian security market and general principles of functioning of similar markets abroad. The subject of my investigation is different kinds of securities and stock exchanges where the given financial instruments circulate. My thesis consists of two chapters. The first chapter is devoted to the analysis of stock price fluctuations, indicators, indices and factors. In the second chapter I am going to develop some new rules and principles to receive legible formulations. The most interesting aspect, I think, is an attempt to formulate some laws of a revolution in the field of securities in the contemporary Russian economic environment. I hope my research will be of great importance and serve as guidance to forecast different situations at the Russian security market. I don’t use any special equipment except my notebook.

Of course, I’m not satisfied with the result obtained. I have a long way to go. I plan to submit my thesis in two years.

My scientific supervisor is Mr… He is professor, Doctor of Economics.

The English language plays an important role in my life and study. I think of improving my speaking skills, so I’ll be able to talk to foreign specialists on my own, to take part in scientific conferences abroad. But now I am reading a lot of specialized and scientific books and journals in English searching the material for my thesis.

 

Now let me tell some words about myself and my scientific investigations. My name is…… I am … years old. I was born in …… My hobby is …… I graduated from the … in 20......My specialty is……

Being a student I got interested in scientific research. That is why after the university I made up my mind to take up a master's degree course at the ………department.

The approximate theme of my thesis is “……”. We are to analyze…… It is also necessary to develop……. So, this problem is of great practical value.

I carry out research under the guidance of Professor Doctor of ….. Sciences.

I have ……… articles published.

My task is to pass all Master’s Degree exams and to defend my thesis successfully.

 

Дополнительный материал

Для чтения и перевода

 

Текст I.

1. Прочитайте текст и сделайте его полный письменный перевод.

Science

Science is important to world peace in many ways. On one hand, scientists have helped to develop many of the modern tools of war. On the other hand, they have also helped to keep the peace through research which has improved life for people. Scientists have helped us understand the problem of supplying the world with enough energy; they have begun to develop a number of solutions to the energy problem - for example, using energy from the sun and from the atom. Scientists have also analyzed the world’s resources. We can begin to learn to share the resources with the knowledge provided to us by science. Science studies the Universe and how to use its possibilities for the benefit of men.

Science is also important to everyone who is affected by modern technology. Many of the things that make our lives easier and better are the results of advances in technology and, if the present patterns continue, technology will affect us even more in the future than it does now. In some cases, such as technology for taking salt out of ocean water, technology may be essential for our lives on Earth.

The study of science also provides people with an understanding of natural world. Scientists are learning to predict earthquakes, are continuing to study many other natural events such as storms. Scientists are also studying various aspects of human biology and the origin and developments of the human race. The study of the natural world may help improve life for many people all over the world.

A basic knowledge of science is essential for everyone. It helps people find their way in the changing world.

 

2. Найдите в тексте производные следующих слов, переведите их на русский язык и определите какой частью речи они являются.

science possible vary develop understand supply
know nature importance

3. Найдите в тексте слова и выражения с противоположным значением.

war, on one hand, difficult, worse, the past, death, artificial, ancient.

4. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты для слов и выражений в скобках.

1. Science helped develop /современное оружие/. 2. Science develops more and more /решений/ to the energy problem. 3. Scientists predict /землетрясения/. 4. Knowledge is /необходимы/ for people. 5. Scientists are trying to /сохранить мир/ through research. 6. The problem of /обеспечения мира/ with enough energy is essential. 7. /Мировые ресурсы/ are not limitless. 8. Science studies /Вселенную/ and how to use its /возможности/. 9. Technology will affect people even more /в будущем/.

5. Завершите предложения, используя слова и выражения из текста.

1. Scientists have learned to use the energy of __________. 2. Science helped improve __________. 3. Knowledge is essential for people to find __________. 4. The study of science provides people with __________. 5. Scientists study many natural phenomena such as __________. 6. The origin and developments of the human race is a very __________. 7. A basic knowledge of science __________.

6. a) Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения, обращая внимание на выделенные слова.

I don’t know the meaning of this new verb. 2. How many meanings of the word “power” do you know? 3. What does the process of splitting the atom mean? 4. By means of radio and television we can watch sputnics and spaceships. 5. A computer is an effective means of solving mathematical problems.

б) Переведите на английский язык.

важное средство; посредством (при помощи) науки; новое значение слова; это означает, что...; технические средства.

7. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты для следующих слов и выражений:

· создать современное оружие;

· сохранять мир;

· улучшить жизнь;

· проблема обеспечения мира энергией;

· разработать ряд решений энергетической проблемы;

· анализировать мировые ресурсы;

· сообща пользоваться ресурсами;

· знания, предоставляемые кому-либо наукой;

· Вселенная;

· использовать возможности на благо человека;

· быть связанным с современной техникой;

· результат технических достижений;

· иметь огромное значение для чьей-либо жизни;

· давать людям понимание чего-либо;

· предсказывать землетрясения;

· изучать различные аспекты биологии человека;

· происхождение и развитие человеческого рода;

· элементарное знание науки;

· ориентироваться в меняющемся мире.

8. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. Why is science so important in the modern world? 2. How does science help keep peace in the world? 3. How does science help solve the energy problem? 4. What proves that the study of science is important for understanding of the natural world?

9. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Наука помогла разработать современное оружие. 2. Наука находит все новые решения энергетической проблемы. 3. Наука помогла людям научиться использовать энергию солнца и атома. 4. Наука помогла научиться совместному использованию ресурсов. 5. Ученые предсказывают землетрясения. 6. Наука помогла улучшить жизнь людей. 7. Знания необходимы людям, чтобы ориентироваться в изменяющемся мире.

 

10. Расположите в нужном порядке следующие ключевые слова и выражения из текста и используйте их для пересказа.

for the benefit of men; important; to understand natural world; to develop; advances in technology; essential for people’s lives; the modern tools of war; to find new energy sources; to keep the peace; to supply the world with energy; to improve life.

11. Согласны ли вы со следующими утверждениями? Обоснуйте ваш ответ.

Science very little affects everyday life. 2. We can hardly speak of any achievements in medicine. 3. Science is motivated by curiosity of a researcher.

 

Текст II.

1. Прочитайте текст и сделайте его полный письменный перевод.

Science and Technology

In recent years life on our planet has been drastically changed due to scientific and technological developments. Our views both of ourselves as individuals in society and of the Universe as a whole have changed as well.

Today, science and technology are closely related. Many modern technologies such as nuclear power and space flights depend on science and the application of scientific knowledge and principles. Each advance in pure science creates new opportunities for the development of new ways of making things to be used in daily life. In turn, technology provides science with new and more accurate instruments for its investigation and research.

Technology refers to the ways in which people use discoveries to satisfy needs and desires, to alter the environment, to improve their lives. Throughout human history, men and women have invented tools, machines, materials and techniques to make their lives easier.

Of course, when we speak of technology today, we are looking at it in a much narrower sense. Generally, we mean industrial technology, or the technology that began about 200 years ago with the development of power-driven machines, growth of the factory system, and mass production of goods that has created the basis for our modern society. Today we often say that we live in an age of science and technology. According to one estimate, 90 % of all the scientists who ever lived, were alive and active in the 1970-s. This increased scientific activity has brought new ideas, processes, and inventions in ever-growing amount.

The scientific revolution that began in the 16th century was the first time that science and technology began to work together. Thus, Galileo, who made revolutionary discoveries in astronomy and physics, also built an improved telescope and patented a system of lifting water. However, it was not until the 19th century that technology truly was based on science and inventors began to build on the work of scientists.

In a sense, the history of science and technology is the history of all humankind.

Vocabulary

technology, n техника
science and technology наука и техника
developments, n достижения
drastically, adv резко
a view (of smb., smth.), n взгляд (на кого-либо, что-либо)
be closely related быть тесно связанным
apply, v применять
application, n применение
an advance in pure science прогресс в чистой науке
create, v создавать
opportunity, n возможность
an instrument for investigation инструмент исследований
and research
alter, v изменять
throughout human history на всем протяжении истории человечества
narrow, a узкий
sense, n смысл
power-driven machines паровые машины
according to one estimate по одной оценке
increased scientific activity возросшая научная деятельность
discovery, n открытие
build on the work of scientists основываться на научных работах

2. Образуйте глаголы от следующих существительных. Переведите их на русский язык.

development, relation, application, knowledge, investigation, discovery, improvement, production, invention.

3. Переведите однокоренные слова и определите, к какой части речи они относятся.

science – scientist – scientific;
develop – developer – development;
nucleus – nuclei – nuclear;
apply – applied – application;
accurate – accuracy;
invent – inventor – invention;
power – powerful – powerless;
produce – product – production – productive.

4. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты для следующих выражений.

наука и техника; достижения науки и техники; резко изменить жизнь; быть тесно связанным; атомная энергия; космический полет; применение научных знаний и принципов; прогресс в чистой науке; создать новые возможности; удовлетворять нужды и потребности; изменить окружающую среду; массовое производство товаров; создать основу; век науки и техники.

5. Опираясь на текст, переведите на английский язык следующие слова и выражения в скобках.

1. In recent years our /взгляды/ of the Universe have drastically changed.

2. Modern technology /зависит от/ advances in pure science.

3. Technology provides science with more /точные/ instruments for research.

4. /На всем протяжении истории человечества/ people invented tools, machines, materials and technologies.

5. Modern technology began growth of the factory system and /массового производства товаров/.

6. /Только в 19 веке/ that technology began to build on the work of scientists.

6. Задайте вопросы к следующим предложениям.

1. Scientific and technological developments have drastically changed life on our planet.

2. Science and technology are closely related.

3. Many modern technologies depend on science.

4. Technology provides science with new and accurate instruments.

5. Men and women have invented tools, machines, materials and techniques.

6. We say that we live in an age of science and technology.

7. Industrial technology began about 200 years ago.

7. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.

8. What role has scientific and technological development played in man’s life?

9. What proves that science and technology are closely related today?

10. What does the term technology refer to?

11. What does the term industrial technology mean?

12. How is scientific activity in 1970-s estimated?

13. When did science and technology begin to work together?

14. How can the history of mankind be described?

 

Текст III.

1. Прочитайте, переведите и кратко изложите содержание текста на английском языке.

The use of resources

Natural resources. Resources help people satisfy their needs and wants. Natural resources - a naturally occurring material that can be used to produce goods and services - occur as part of tin-environment and are an important part of an area’s characteristics. Renewable resources can be used over and over again, but scarce and nonrenewable resources must be conserved or recycled for use by future generations.

Earth is a planet rich in the materials necessary to support life. People can live only by making use of the earth’s natural resources. Resources include not only minerals, soil, water, forests, and wildlife, but also air and the energy of the sun when people know how to make use of them. People convert the things that nature provides into useful machines, tools, and foods. Even the most desolate and isolated areas of the world contain at least some resources, or materials that people use to meet basic needs and wants.

As people use natural resources, they change the natural landscape. Changes in the landscape brought about by mining and farming illustrate this idea. Yet the use of natural resources also brings about changes in the cultural landscape. Centuries ago the Romans built stone aqueducts to carry water to many parts of the Roman Empire. For some people, this made Water readily available for the first time. Today vehicles use highways, canals, and airways to speed the movement of valuable resources throughout the world.

Not all people in the world use natural resources in the same way. Factors that affect the use of natural resources include cultural differences, technological change, economic factors, and geopolitics.

Economic factors also play an important part in the way people use natural resources. Scarcity and rising prices have always led people to seek cheaper substitutes for costly resources. In colonial days, for example, people burned whale oil for lighting. As demand for whale oil rose, more and more whales were hunted. Eventually over hunting made whales harder to find and prices rose. People then looked for cheaper substitutes. In time they found a way to make kerosene from petroleum. Because kerosene cost less than whale oil, it quickly replaced whale oil as a lighting fuel.

Another factor that affects the use of natural resources is geo­politics - the relationship between geography and political policy. The international trade of scarce minerals provides an example of the importance of geopolitics in today’s world.

 

Most mineral deposits are unevenly distributed across the earth. This uneven distribution has resulted in increased world trade as countries lacking certain mineral resources buy what they need from other countries. Depending on the circumstances, a price increase or interruption in supply could result in great changes till the country importing the mineral. Geopolitics is becoming an increasingly important force in the world today.

2. Ответьте на следующие вопросы/

1. How can the use of natural resources change (a) the natural landscape and (b) the cultural landscape?

2. What different factors affect the value and use of natural re sources?

3. Why are natural resources important?

4. How did technological advances and economic factors change the way people met their needs?

3. Раскройте скобки, используя времена группы Continuous Active. Поставьте предложения в отрицательную и вопросительную форму.

1. Geopolitics (to become) an increasingly important force in the world today.

2. In colonial days people (to seek) cheaper substitutes for costly resources.

3. The cost of the natural resources (to increase) greatly nowadays.

4. The enormous changes in number of scarce and nonrenewable resources (to come) in some years.

5. An irreparable injury was made while people (to hunt) the whales.

 

Текст IV.

1. Прочитайте текст, озаглавьте его и сделайте полный письменный перевод.

 

The atmosphere is one of the most important components of the environmental ecosphere where man can exist. It is characterized by the quantitative and qualitative composition of the air. The dry air near the surface of the Earth contains 78 % of Nitrogen (N), 21.95 % of Hydrogen (H), 0.93 of Argon (Ar), and 0.03 % of Carbon Dioxide (CO₂). The rest 0.01 % belongs to Gallium (Ga), Neon (Ne), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), ozone, Radon (Rn), Iodine (I), etc. Nitrogen is important for all the life on the Earth. Oxygen is required for people, animals and plants to breathe.

The composition of the air determines the meteorological conditions near the surface of the Earth. For the last decades we have been observing the changes of the balance in the composition of the air. These changes are caused by the rapid development of industries. The atmosphere is polluted by industrial wastes such as steam, different kinds of gases, dust, soot, cinder. They are dangerous for people's health as well as for the environment and the wild life. They also change the climate locally and worldwide. After settling down on the vegetation cover (grass) harmful substances destruct it and pollute the soil and water bodies. All this causes irreversible processes in the environment the outcomes of which can be seen only some decades later.

To protect the environment and to keep it clean is a global task. That is why international cooperation in this field has been developing recently. Today the development of industries increases the content of dust and gases in the atmosphere and its purity decreases. The development of the astronautics gave us an opportunity to determine the degree of the pollution more precisely. In the pictures (photos) received from sputniks one can clearly see the traces of industrial pollution, such as smoke, dust, cinder, etc. stretching for hundreds of kilometers. Town areas and their suburbs are the most polluted ones.

Dust contained in the air can be classified into two groups:

1) poisonous (toxic) substances, dangerous for the whole organism;

2) substances affecting the organs of respiration.

The body covered with dust can suffer from such diseases as suppurative inflammation and eczema. If got into eyes, dust causes the eye disease - conjunctivitis. Dust particles of 5 micro microns penetrate into the lungs and cause a lung disease.

The atmosphere can partly purify itself from pollutants that settle down themselves or by precipitation. The plants dissolve and absorb harmful substances. But nowadays the amount of pollutants and wastes are so great that the atmosphere cannot manage to absorb them, so they accumulate.

 

 

Текст V.

1. Прочитайте текст и сделайте его реферативный перевод

New Energy from Old Sources

Automobile Engineer, vol. 82, No. 5, 2009, New York

1. The resources of fossil fuel which made the industrial revolution possible and have added to the comfort and convenience of modern life were formed over a period of 600-million years. We will consume them in a few hundred years at current rates.

2. The current energy problem is the result of many complex and interrelated factors, including a world wide demand for energy; inadequate efforts during the recent past to develop new energy resources; delays in the construction of nuclear power plants, automobile changes that increase gasoline consumption.

Demand must, of necessity, be moderated, and intensive efforts must be made to expand the overall energy supply.

3. But energy is available to use in practically unlimited quantities from other sources. Large amounts of energy can be received from ocean tides and currents, from huge underground steam deposits, from the power of wind and from the heat of the Sun.

The idea of heating houses with the warmth of the Sun has become popular in the last few years. Since the U.S. News and world report first told about solar heated homes near Washington some years ago, many similar projects have appeared around the country. In many places schools are using solar units to provide classroom heat.

4. Most solar-heating systems coming on the market use a black surface to absorb the Sun’s heat. Engineers cover the surface with glass which lets in the rays, but holds heat. The heat is transferred to water that runs through small pipes. The hot water is then circulated through the house.

It is estimated that 40 million new buildings will be heated by solar energy by the year 2020.

The solar cell is another way to produce power from the sun. It converts sunlight directly into electricity. These cells are used with great success in the space program, but remain far too expensive for widespread application.

In the meantime, solar homes are being built and lived in from California to Connecticut. The next step is mass production of homes, office buildings and schools – all heated by the Sun.

5. Putting the wind to work researchers are showing great interest in the age-old windmill. Several big companies are now studying windmills. These companies are to analyse windmills ranging from 100 to 2,000 kilowatts, The smallest would provide sufficient electricity to power several homes, the largest could provide electricity to a small village.

 

2. Подготовьте аннотацию к тексту New Energy from Old Sources.

3. Сравните сделанные Вами аннотацию и реферативный перевод с прилагаемыми примерами реферативного и аннотационного перевода.

Образец аннотации текста

Аннотация

(New Energy from Old Sources)

(Новые ресурсы энергии из старых источников).

Automobile Engineer, vol. 82, No. 5, 2009, New York

В этой статье рассматриваются вопросы получения энергии от таких источников, как солнце и ветер.

Образец реферата текста

Реферат

New Energy from Old Sources

(Новые ресурсы энергии из старых источников).

Automobile Engineer, vol. 82, No. 5, 2009, New York

Статья посвящена важной проблеме поиска путей получения энергии. Вследствие того, что залежи полезных ископаемых, являющихся в настоящее время основным источником энергии, истощаются, необходимо разрабатывать способы получения энергии из других источников. В качестве таковых автор предлагает использовать тепловую энергию солнца, ветер, приливные течения и подземные запасы пара.

В статье приводятся данные о возможности отопления жилых домов за счет солнечного тепла и снабжения электроэнергией небольших поселков от ветряных мельниц.

Упомянутые в статье источники смогут дать в будущем неограниченные возможности получения энергии.

Текст VI.

Прочтите текст и сделайте его аннотационный перевод.