Communicative types of the sentence

In accord with the purpose of communication three cardinal sentence-types have long been recognized in linguistic tradition: first, the declarative sentence; second, the imperative sentence; third, the interrogative sentence.The declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative, and as such stands in systemic syntagmatic correlation with listener’s responding signals of attention, of appraisal, or of fellow-feeling.The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. That is, it urges the listener, in the form of request or command, to perform or not to perform a certain action. As such, the imperative sentence is situationally connected with the corresponding ‘action response’, and lingually is systemically correlated with a verbal response showing that the inducement is either complied with, or else rejected.The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener. It is naturally connected with the answer, forming together with it a question-answer dialogue unity.

Compound sentence.

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected: (a) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, etc.); (b) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb. We can distinguish the following types of coordination: 1. Copulative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘and, nor, neither…nor, not only…but (also)’. With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in the clause is simply added to that expressed in another. 2. Disjunctive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘or, else, or else, either…or’, and the conjunctive adverb ‘otherwise’. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses. 3.Adversative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘but, while, whereas’ and the conjunctive adverbs ‘nevertheless, still, yet’. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasted in meaning. 4. Causative-consecutive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘for, so’ and the conjunctive adverbs ‘therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence’. ‘For’ introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. ‘Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly’ introduce coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.Examples of compound sentences include the following: 1) Joe waited for the train, but the train was late. 2) I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived. 3) Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived. 4) Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus station.

 

The category of Mood

English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive. Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is expressed. 1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question:Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.Ostriches cannot fly.Have you finished your homework? 2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:Don’t smoke in this building. Be careful!Don’t drown that puppy! 3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact. 4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject. It can be the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the infinitive form is a fully-functioning verb. When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form of the verb with “to” in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak. Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -ed and -ing. Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other parts of speech: To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns. He is a man to be admired. Here, to be admired is an adjective, the equivalent of admirable. It describes the noun man. He came to see you. Here, to see you is used as an adverb to tell why he came.

Ways of clause connection

The category of voice

The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The grammatical meaning of action is understood widely: it is not only activities proper (He wrote a letter) but both a state (He will soon recover) and just an indication of the fact that the given object exists or belongs to a certain class of objects or persons (A chair is a piece of furniture). It is important that the verb conveys the feature as an action within some period of time, however unlimited. a) Semantically and grammatically English verbs are grouped as transitive (to give), intransitive (to sleep), regular, irregular, mixed, notional, auxiliary, link (to grow, to turn, to look), terminative (to come), non-terminative (to live) and verbs of double lexical (aspect) character (to see). b) The valency of verbs is their combinability. For example, all verbs are characterized by their subordination to the subject of a sentence; transitive verbs are usually combined with an object; auxiliary and link verbs need a notional predicative, etc. c) The verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. Voice is the category of the verb which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object. There are two undoubted voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate. The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is acted upon. For example, the sentence I read the book is in the active voice because the subject I performs the action of reading and the direct object the book receives the action of reading. The sentence The book was read [by me], is in the passive voice because the subject The book receives the action of reading. Some scholars assume there is one more voice in English, the so-called neuter-reflexive voice. (E.g. She was dressing herself.)

 

The category of tense

The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time. The essential characteristic of the category of tense is that it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of the utterance (the time of the utterance being 'now ' or the present moment). The tense category is realized through the oppositions. The binary principle of oppositions remains the basic one in the correlation of the forms that represent the grammatical category of tense. The present moment is the main temporal plane of verbal actions. Therefore, the temporal dichotomy may be illustrated by the following graphic representation (the arrows show the binary opposition):

Present Past

Future I Future II

Generally speaking, the major tense-distinction in English is undoubtedly that which is traditionally described as an opposition of past::present. But this is best regarded as a contrast of past:: non-past. Quite a lot of scholars do not recognize the existence of future tenses, because what is described as the 'future' tense in English is realized by means of auxiliary verbs will and shall. Although it is undeniable that will and shall occur in many sentences that refer to the future, they also occur in sentences that do not. And they do not necessarily occur in sentences with a future time reference. That is why future tenses are often treated as partly modal.

Other Categories of Verbs

Besides the already discussed categories of the verb, there are some other categories like

aspect, order, posteriority, tense and others.

These categories are very often mixed up: most authors consider them within the tense

category. To illustrate this we'll view the conception of Henry Sweet.

To H. Sweet (42) there are three tenses in English. "Tense is primarily the grammatical expression of

distinctions of time".

Every occurrence, considered from the point of view of time, must be either past (I was

here yesterday), present (he is here today), or future (he will be here tomorrow).

Simple and Compound Tenses: The present, preterite and future are simple tenses. All the perfect tenses are

referred by him to compound tense. These tenses combine present, past and future respectively with a time anterior

to each of these periods:

present perfect = preterite + preterite;

pluperfect (past p.) = pre-preterite + preterite;

future perfect = pre - future + future

Primary and secondary Tenses: He writes: “When we speak of an occurrence as past, we must have some

point of time from which to measure it.

When we measure the time of an occurrence from the time when we are speaking, that is, from the present,

the tense which expresses the time of the occurrence is called a primary tense. The present, preterite, future and

perfect (the present perfect) are primary tenses.

A secondary tense on the other hand, is measured not from the time when we are speaking, but from some

past or future time of which we are speaking and consequently a sentence containing secondary tense makes us

expect another sentence containing a verb in a primary tense to show the time from which that of the secondary

tense is to be measured. The pluperfect and future perfect are both secondary tenses.

He will have informed his friends by the time they (the quests) arrived.

He had informed his friends when the quests arrived.

Complete and Incomplete Tenses. The explanation of this classification of tenses by H. Sweet is vague and

confused because he mixes up the lexical and grammatical means, compare:

I have lived my life.

1 have lived here a good many years.

The first is complete and second is incomplete. As one can see there's no difference in the form of verbs.

He makes his division because of different distribution of the tense forms. But one point is clear in his conception.

He considers continuous tense to be also incomplete as for instance:

The clock is striking twelve while.

The clock has struck twelve. (complete)

Continuous Tenses are opposed to Point-Tenses:

I've been writing letters all day.

We set out for Germany.

Though even here we observe some confusion. Such examples are also considered to be

continuous or recurrent:

He goes to Germany twice a year.

Definite and Indefinite Tenses: the shorter a tense is, the more definite it generally is in duration. Long

times (continuous and recurrent) - are generally more indefinite:

I write my letters in the evenings.

I am writing a letter.

Q. Jespersen (34):

O. Jeperson’s view of the grammatical tenses in English is illustrated in the table below:

B

A_________________O_________________C

A B Future

Before past

Past

After past

Present

Before future

Future

After future

After-past time: I know of no language which possesses a simple tense for this notion. A usual meaning

“obligation” in English most often is expressed by “was to”:

Next year she gave birth to a son who was to cause her great anxiety.

After future. This has a chiefly theoretical interest, and I doubt very much whether forms like I shall be

going to rewrite (which implies nearness in time to the chief future time is of very frequent occurrence).

The Continuous tenses he calls expanded ones: is writing, will be asking, will have been asking... or

composite tense-forms.

The categories of tense, aspect and order characterize an action from different points of

view.

The tense of a verb shows the time of the action; the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the

action, while order denotes the order of the actions.

When discussing grammatical categories we accepted that a grammatical category is a grammatical

meaning which has a certain grammatical means to be expressed.

The analyses of the following example will help us to make certain conclusions: When you

come he will have been writing his composition. The predicates of the sentence are in the

indicative mood. And, as has been stated, it is in this mood all the grammatical categories of the

verb are expressed. The tense is future and it is expressed by the auxiliary word/verb will. The

order is prior and it is expressed by the auxiliary verb have + - en or - ed. The aspect is continuous

and it is expressed by the auxiliary verb be + ing.

Since all these categories have their own means we may call them grammatical ones. And

as any category must have certain opposition (while defining the grammatical categories we

defined it as “at least having two individual forms”).

The category of tense is orientated with regard to the present tense. The tense category is

the system of three-member opposition. So the present tense may be called as the point of

measurement or orientation point.

The category of order is a system of two-member opposition: prior and non-prior. Compare:

I work - I have worked.

So the prior order marker have + ed is opposite to the zero of non-prior. As in English there are three

tenses. This grammatical category can be expressed in all of them. Present: I work – I have worked. Past: I worked –

I had worked. Future: I shall work – I shall have worked.

The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposition: Continuous – Non-continuous: I work – I

am working.

T o be - ing is the morpheme of the continuous meaning. This category is found in all the three tenses.

Present: I work – I am working

Past: I worked – I was working.

Future: I'll work – I'll be working.

The means of expression of these categories are arranged in a certain sequence. In the

active voice they are arranged in the following way:

Tense is expressed in the first component of the predicate: order – in first or second

(second if it is in the future tense), aspect – in the second or third components. The order means

always precede the aspect means if both are found in the predicate.

If the predicate is in the passive voice the tense is again expressed by the first component

of it while the means of the passive voice follows the means of the aspect and order categories.

Note: In the future tense the passive meaning and the aspect (continuous) is incompatible.

 

The form of the verb may show whether the agent expressed by the subject is the doer of the action or the recipient of the action (John broke the vase - the vase was broken). The objective relations between the action and the subject or object of the action find their expression in language as the grammatical category of voice. Therefore, the category of voice reflects the objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action:

 

 

Relations of actions The category of voice

The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Passive voice. The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and intransitive. However, the classification turns out to be more complex and comprises 6 groups:

1. Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;

2.Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;

3. Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;

4.Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;

5.Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;

6. Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.

Some scholars admit the existence of Middle, Reflexive and Reciprocal voices. "Middle Voice" - the verbs primarily transitive may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well. "Reflexive Voice": He dressed; He washed - the subject is both the agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to use a reflexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself. "Reciprocal voice”: They met; They kissed - it is always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.

We cannot, however, speak of different voices, because all these meanings are not expressed morphologically.