XII. List all problems touched upon in the text. Назовите все проблемы, которые обсуждаются в тексте.

XIII. Answer the following questions to the text, using your answers give summary of the text. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту. Используя ваши ответы, составьте пересказ текста.

1. What can cause human diseases?

2. What diseases of man are mainly of respiratory tract?

3. What do they include?

4. Where are these diseases spread?

5. What is an epidemic disease?

6. What is still a leading cause of death?

7. Who isolated the causative organism of human tuberculosis?

8. What symptoms of tuberculosis do you know?

9. What are bacilli like?

10. What organisms are they?

11. What does treatment of tuberculosis consist of?

12. When are surgical intervention and chemotherapy used?

13. What drugs are used to fight tuberculosis?

14. What is meningitis?

15. What is the disease caused by?

16. What is the typical form of transmission of bacteria causing meningitis?

17. What is meningitis characterized by?

18. When is the disease fatal?

19. What is the infection like?

20. What is there in humans?

21. How is acquired immunity obtained?

22. What does treatment include?

23. What is a prophylaxis ensured by? Name the measures.

 

Immunology.

Immunology is the branch of the microbiology which deals with the study of immunity to infection. The study was first started in 1798 with Jenner’s observations on vaccination against smallpox. Edward Jenner learnt from milkmaid infected with cowpox that milkmades who developed cowpox were immune to smallpox.

Paster (1822-1895) developed attenuated (ослабленные) vaccines for anthrax (сибирская язва) and rabies (бешенство). The classical work of Russian scientist E. Mechnikoff (1845-1916) on the biological theory of immunity marked a new stage in the history of immunobiology. He discovered phagocytosis and intracellular (внутриклеточное) digestion (пищеварение) in mesoderm cells of some animals.

Enrlich (1834-1915) gave a theory of humoral immunity according to which certain substances in blood steam (сыворотка) secreted by special cells under the influence of microbes and their toxins play an important role in the defense reactions of the body. This ability of developing specific immunity to invading or infective agent is a unique property of vertebrates.

Modern immunology is not restricted to infection immunity but has a wider scope (размах, сфера, предел, рамки). It covers defense against infection, prevention of disease by immunization, blood banking and hypersensitivity including autoimmunity (аутоиммунная реакция).

Immune system is endowed (to endow- наделять, обеспечивать) with three characteristics specificity, memory, recognition of self- antigen (распознавание своего).

1) Specificity. The immune system has the property to recognize foreign substances, i.e. antigens or substances that can stimulate the formation of antibodies.

2) Memory. During responseto foreign substances some lymphocytes give rise (давать начало, вызывать, иметь результаты) to memory cells and are permitted to act with speed and vigor. The next time the foreign agent is uncounted.

3) Self-recognition. There is an interaction of many foreign substances with immune system. The immune system can discriminate between the foreign substances. This is called self-recognition.

Exercises to the text

Ex. 1. Say in Russian. Скажите по-русски.

Immunology, the branch of microbiology, observations, vaccination, milkmaids, smallpox, to be immune, anthrax, rabies, to mark a new stage in the history of immunology, to discover phagocytosis, intracellular digestion, to give a theory of humeral immunity, certain substances, blood serum, to secrete, under the influence, defense reactions, invading, infective agent, unique property, modern immunology, defense against infection, prevention of disease by immunization, blood-banking, autoimmunity, is endowed, recognition of self-antigen.

 

Ex. 2. Match the words in the left with those in the right. Соедините слова слева со словами в правой колонке.

Branch of microbiology	Быть невосприимчивым
Smallpox	Сыворотка крови
To be immune	Оспа
Intracellular digestion	Внутриклеточное пищеварение
Blood serum	Защитная реакция
To secrete	Банк крови
Defense reaction	Выделять
Blood banking	Отрасль микробиологии

Ex. 3. Answer the following questions to the text. Using your answers give summary of the text. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту. Используя ваши ответы, составьте пересказ текста.

1. What is immunity?

2. What did Jenner learn?

3. What marked a new stage in the history of immunobiology?

4. What is a unique property of vertebrates?

5. What has a wider scope?

6. What characteristics is immune system endowed with?

7. When do some lymphocytes give rise to memory cells?

8. What is called self- recognition?

 

History of microbiology

The new world of microbes was discovered nearly three centuries by Anthony Leeuwenhoek (1632- 1723) with the help of the simplest microscope which was constructed by himself His name was always used as father of bacteriology and zoology. He was a merchant in a small town called Delft. He used his spare time in examining the most diverse objects through lenses which he had chiseled (здесь: изготавливать) himself.

He wrote four volumes about his investigations in 1695. These studies opened a new vista (перс­пектива) into the fascinating world of unknown science of microbiology. He described many forms of bacteria. He traced out (прослеживать) these little animals from the surfaces man, animals and from rain water, ditch-water and even from his own teeth.

In the middle of the 18th century many other microscopists observed these little animals. It was Linnaeus who created a new genus which he called as “chaos” n which he rationally grouped these little animals. Wirsbery described these organisms as infusoria Linneus (1765) classified these organisms as chaos infusoria.

It were Miller Ehrenberg, Nagely, who contributed much to the development of microbiology. Louis Pasteur created a new theory of spontaneous generation of life.

He established the fact that spoilage of beer was due to the appearance of undesired germs in beer. He demonstrated that by heating bottled beer at 50 to 53 С temperature we could keep away from this developing disease. On the basis of such heating application he introduced the term '"pasteurization" which is of common use in dairy industries. He was the first bacteriologist who discovered the germs causing the disease of chicken cholera and established a new germ theory of immunization against diseases. According to this theory during the process of growth bacteria become old and lose their power of causing the disease. This theory helped him to produce vaccines which were prepared from bacilli. The discovery of bacilli was made by a German physician Robert Koch (1843-1910). He isolated the bacillus of anthrax (сибирская язва). This was the first pathogenic organism which was isolated in culture - free from other organisms. He discovered liquid and solid culture media, which include both serum and blood agar. A new approach was made by an English surgeon Lord Lister (1827- 1912) by making practical applications of bacteriology in the field of medical surgery.

He used sterile surgical appliances and antiseptic dressings to save surgical wounds from the bacteria.

In 1888 Pasteur founded Pasteur Institute in Paris. In this great laboratory Russian scientist, microbiologist Mechnicov worked for hours together and was able to find out how certain leucocytes eat disease- causing bacteria in body. He finally introduced the theory of phagocytes.

The last decades of the 19th century were golden years for the development of microbial knowledge. A lot of scientists became well- known that time due to their discoveries. For example, Winogradsky, Omeliansky. In 1892 Ivanowsky, a Russian botanist was able to discover submicrospic tobacco mosaic virus. Sir Alexander Fleming became a father of antibiotics. He made the invention of the Wonder drug, the penicillin. Pathologist Waksman along with coworkers discovered streptomycin.

In 1949 Enders, Robbins and Wellers got success in cultivating polio causing virus poliomylitis.

After 1955 the microorganisms were studied from different angles of science but even at present the knowledge of microbiology is at the budding stage.

Today the microbial science has been established as a separate distinct branch of biology with close relationship with genetics and biochemistry.

The study of microbiology has now been developed into a specialized subject: industrial m., food m ., environmental m., sanitary m., etc.

Exercises.