Active Words and Word - Combinations

superior to                                     ранее, до

sling                                           носилки

devise                                         изобретать,

substantial                                  большой, важный

reduction                                    уменьшение, сокращение

in the extent                               в рамках

friction                                       трение

dragpoles                                   шесты, за кот. тянули повозку

it was but a minor step              это было хоть и маленьким,

                                                     но шагом

as compared with                      по сравнению с

ultimate                                     окончательный

rotate                                         вращаться

axle                                           ось

tip                                             (зд.) наклонять

adjust                                        подгонять

fracture                                     трещина, излом, разрыв

nail                                           гвоздь, скреплять гвоздями

tractive                                     тягловый

spoked                                      оснащенный спицами

oxen (pl. ox)                              бык

yoke                                          ярмо

hitch                                          привязывать

shaft                                          стержень

 

1. Insert the corresponding words and word-combinations from the text:

 

a) Much of human history saw no technology … the sling or travois.

b) There were versions of the … shaped like a platform.

c) Improvement came with placing a revolving … at the end of each of the dragpoles.

d) There were several advantages of a two-wheel cart, … with the ultimately more common four-wheel variation.

e) A two-wheel cart could be … to aid in loading and unloading.

f) In the earliest …, wheels were probably simple slices across the diameter of a tree.

g) The main … was that either type of wheel was heavy.

h) Ultimately the … was created to lighten the cart.

i) Oxen and zebu cattle were among … used.

j) … took its place as asses, mules, and horses were made to draw vehicles.

k) North of that line a single animal between … was employed.

l) A person mounted on horseback might use a narrow path but not a draft animal drawing ….

 

2. Match English and Russian equivalents:

 

a) tractive, rotate, reduction, yoke, fracture, axle, shaft, in the extent, nail, adjust, spoked as compared with, sling.

                                              

b) носилки, уменьшение, в рамках, по сравнению с, вращаться, ось, подгонять, трещина, скреплять гвоздями, оснащенный спицами, ярмо, тягловый, стержень.

 

3. Translate from Russian into English:

 

a) История человечества не знала других транспортных средств до носилок и повозок, перемещаемых волоком.

b) Помещение колеса на каждом конце шеста, за который тянули повозку, сделало процесс передвижения более совершенным.

c)  У двухколесных повозок были некоторые преимущества по сравнению с четырехколесными.

d) Было сложно изготавливать колеса, поэтому ограничение их числа давало некоторые преимущества.

e)  В конце концов, люди изготовили колесо, оснащенное спицами, что значительно облегчило повозки.

f)  Критическим вопросом для применения повозок был вопрос о том, как прикрепить их к животному.

g) Шейная упряжь стала применяться, когда ослов и лошадей заставили тянуть телеги.

h) Растительность также играла роль: в тех частях Евразии, где росли деревья и пышные кустарники, было трудно проехать на повозке, так как тропы были слишком узкими для этого.

 

4. Answer the following questions:

 

a) What changed with the invention of the wheel?

b) Did it become easier to carry loads?

c) Placing a revolving wheel at the end of each of the dragpoles was but a minor step to arrive at a two-wheel cart, wasn’t it?

d) What advantages had a tow-wheel cart, as compared with the four-wheel variation?

e) How were the earliest wheels made?

f) What was the main disadvantage of the whole-made wheel?

g) What advantage did the creation of the spoked wheel bring?

h) Which difficulties did the people face putting the cart to use?

i) How did the yoke change when people used horned and hornless animals?

j) In which parts of Eurasia people used two animals to move the cart, and in which – one?

k) How did vegetation influence the process of the development of carts?

 

Retell the text according to the plan of your own.

THE PLAUSTRUM

 

The earliest and simplest four-wheel vehicle found in Rome was the plaustrum, which was little more than a flat board borne on four wheels. The firmly attached wheel and the rigidly framed front axle made guiding the wagon cumbersome and rendered the mechanical efficiency of the vehicle very low. These concerns and the poor harnessing of draft animals assured that freight transport by road would be time-consuming and costly.

The Cursus Publicus

The most impressive Roman accomplishment in transportation was what became the postal service, or cursus publicus. At first state runners carried information about and diplomatic instructions to distant corners of the empire. Within a relatively short time mail coaches were established to communicate directly with the provinces. This was not a true public mail service as its use was restricted to persons traveling on business for the emperor or to the rich and powerful.

The use of the cursus publicus was rigidly constrained by regulations on the size and capacity of its vehicles, who might ride on them and for what purposes, who must maintain a vehicle that might be employed in this quasi-public service, and other matters. Because construction and maintenance of roads was costly, they were carefully shielded against overuse, with light maximum loads for various kinds of vehicles. As the Roman Empire lost its vitality, the use of the cursus publicus became subject to favouritism and misuse. With the collapse of the empire the truly exceptional qualities of that system disappeared and did not emerge again until modern times.