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Левое определение - слово на -ingСодержание книги
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Если слева от существительного стоит слово на -ing, то следует сначала попробовать перевести это слово причастием на "-щий". Если такое определение не сочетается с данным существительным, то слово на - ing надо перевести существительным в родительном падеже (чего?) после определяемого существительного. the boiling water - кипящая вода; the boiling point - точка кипения. Правые определения (п.о.) 1. Правое определение - предложные фразы. Значение фразы "предлог + существительное" непосредственно не выводится из значений составляющих фразу элементов. in service - находящийся в эксплуатации in operation - используемый under consideration - рассматриваемый under development - разрабатываемый in question, in point - о котором идет речь, рассматриваемый. 2. Правые определения - слова на -ing. Если перед словом на -ing в роли п.о. стоит предлог "of, то оно обычно переводится существительным в родительном падеже. II I п.о. There are | many ways I of solving the problem. "Существует много способов решения этой проблемы." Если на месте п.о. стоит структура "of (the) X + X-ing" (герундиальный оборот), то она переводится предложением с союзом "того,что...", где (the) X переводится подлежащим, a X-ing - сказуемым. I п.о. II The probability | of the failure taking place | is negligible. "Вероятность того, что отказ будет иметь место, ничтожно мала." Слово на -ing без предлога в роли п.о. переводится причастием на "-щий", а форма being + Зф в роли п.о. - причастием на "-ный, -мый, -тый" или придаточным предложением (при этом вводится подлежащее "который", а форма на —ing переводится пассивным сказуемым). I п.о. II The aircraft | now being offered | have full redundancy of all equipment. "Самолеты, предлагаемые (которые предлагаются) в настоящее время, имеют полное резервирование оборудования." 3. Правое определение - слово на -ed (3 форма глагола). Переводится оно страдательным причастием на "-ный, -мый, -тый". Одиночное слово на -ed (или прилагательное) в роли п.о. надо переводить левым определением.
I п.о. II The results | obtained I are the same for both problems. "Полученные результаты одинаковы для обеих задач." Если за 3 формой глагола в роли п.о. следует "отделяемый" предлог(предлог последующего существительного), то это п.о. следует перевести придаточным предложением, поместив предлог, (если он переводится) перед союзным словом "который", а 3 форму перевести пассивным сказуемым. I II п.о. There were the problems agreed upon by a group of designers. "Это были проблемы, по которым было достигнуто соглашение группой конструкторов." 4. Правое определение - инфинитив или его оборот с предлогом "for". Если to X стоит после слов the first, the last (man, person), то to X переводится сказуемым в прошедшем времени после слов "первым, последним...". These pilots were the first to test the aircraft. "Эти пилоты первыми испытали (были первыми, кто испытал) самолет." Пассивный инфинитив в роли п.о. переводится обычно придаточным предложением, где после слова "который" следует сочетание одного из глаголов "нужно, следует, можно, предстоит и т.п. с данным инфинитивом. I п.о. II The decision | to be made | depends on ' the system application. "Решение, которое нужно (предстоит) принять, зависит от применения системы." Если определением служит структура "for (the) X + to X, т.е. инфинитивный оборот с предлогом "for", то она переводится предложением, где the X переводится подлежащим, а to X - сказуемым, и в это сказуемое могу!4 также вводится модальные глаголы "нужно, можно...". I п.о. II I II The main thing | for a pilot to know | is | how high | he | is flying. "Главное, что должен знать пилот, на какой высоте он летит." 5. Определение - придаточное предложение. Определительные придаточные предложения, вводимые союзами "which, that", довольно легко опознаются по их положению после существительного (часто между I и II). Сложнее опознать бессоюзные придаточные в роли п.о. (см. стр. 17). I II III I II The description | should define | the functions | the computer system | must perform. "Это описание должно определять функции, которые должна выполнять вычислительная система."
Раздел III. О переводе некоторых глагольных форм По материалам: Находкина А.А., Левченко Е.А. Практическое пособие по письменному переводу английской научно-технической литературы. – Якутск: ид-во ЯГУ, 1997. – 3 п.л. Этот раздел помогает выработать основные навыки письменного перевода некоторых английских грамматических конструкций (пассивного залога, инфинитива, герундия) на основе лексики по темам "Строительство" и "Экология". Пассивный залог Пo сравнению с языком русской научно-технической литературы пассивный залог шире используется в английских научно-технических текстах. Пассивная форма английского глагола отличается от русского страдательного залога, который употребляйся значительно реже, уступая место другим выразительным среде там языка. Поэтому в ряде случаев переводчик испытывает определенные трудности при переводе пассивной формы на русский язык. К тому же передача английского страдательного залога часто требует изменения грамматической структуры предложения. Страдательный залог часто употребляется без указания на субъект действия. Однако при необходимости ссылки на субьекг используется предложный оборот с предлогами by или with, которые соответственно переводятся: c, с помощью, посредством - или дополнением в творительном падеже без предлога: with pumps - насосами, by open method - открытым способом. Более частое употребление страдательного залога в английском языке объясняется тем, что формы английского страдательного залога могут быть созданы на основе не только переходных глаголов, но и с такими глаголами, которые в действительном залоге употребляются с косвенным или предложным дополнением:
С точки зрения перевода важен характер русского глагола, лри помощи которого будет передан страдательный залог. Следовательно переводчик может встретиться с двумя основными случаями передачи страдательного залога: 1) английскому пассивному глаголу соответствует русский непереходный глагол. В данном случае чаще всего происходит замена страдательного залога действительным.
2) английскому пассивному глаголу соответствует русский переходный глагол. При отсутствии веских оснований для изменения структуры предложения страдательный залог сохраняется. Следует помнить, что в английском языке страдательный залог часто используется для размещения логического ударения на объекте, а не на субъекте действия. Таким образом, он играет важную роль для выделения смыслового центра сообщения. Пассивная форма употребляется вместо активной в следующих случаях: * активное подлежащее, выполняющее данное действие, неизвестно
* активное подлежащее намеренно опускается, так как основная мысль высказывания связана с пассивным подлежащим:
активное подлежащее не опускается, хотя автор желает выделить пассивное подлежащее:
Предложения со сказуемым в страдательном залоге на русский язык переводятся: 1) сочетанием глагола "быть" с краткой формой причастия (аналогично выражению страдательного залога в английском языке).
2) глаголом с частицей "ся" со страдательным значением.
3) глаголом в третьем лице множественного числа действительного залога в неопределенно-личном предложении.
4) действительным залогом (только при наличии указания на лицо). Иногда английская пассивная конструкция может быть передана не одним, а двумя или тремя вышеупомянутыми способами. Выбор диктуется стилем.
EXERCISES Exercise I Compare the following sentences. Pay particular attention to the ways of translating passive constructions:
Exercise 2 Translate the following sentences, underline the predicates in the Passive Voice, and define the tense of the predicate: 1. At the present time the construction of two large hydroelectric power stations is being completed with high-head dams primarily made from local material. 2. Several small dams have been designed and built to provide needed reservoirs for water supply for military installations at Unalakleet and Indian Mountain. Alaska. 3. Design of pavements subject to seasonal thaw-freeze cycles is based on either of two basic concepts: control of surface deformation resulting from frost action, or provision of adequate bearing capacity during the most critical climatic period. 4. Embankments are generally constructed of clean sands and gravels because of their nonheaving qualities, drainability, and the ability to excavate and place them during freezing weather. 5. The area of industrial and residential construction in Norilsk is distinguished by complicated engineering-geocryological conditions. 6. With significant depth of bedrock the foundations of structures not having industrial heat generation and providing for the maintenance of the frozen state of the ground by their structure for their entire life are laid on granular permafrost deposits. 7. The foundations of structures, and the design or industrial use of which excludes the possibility of preserving the frozen state of the ground, are erected on bedrock or nonsettling frozen ground. 8. In the aboveground installation of the pipeline, the natural geocryologic conditions of the route are disturbed the least, and the stability of the line and possibility of convenient technical inspection of it during its operation are insured. Exercise 3 Translate the following passages and underline the Passive Voice: 1. The erection of a large hydroelectric power plant of about 650,000 Kw on the Vilyuy River has been completed. The first stage of this dam has been in operation since 1967. The complex of the hydroelectric power engineering structures includes the following; a dam, a spillway with one segment gate, an intake structure, etc. 2. The Russian engineers have successfully designed and built a number of dams in permafrost regions; however, construction of such structures in the United States has been limited, and Alaska is probably the only area in the United States that has had or will require such engineering effort. 3. The northernmost pipeline in the world from Norilsk to Messoyakha is 263 km long and 720 mm in diameter and was laid through the tundra, which is difficult of access. There are more than 60 water obstacles along its path, the largest of them being the Yenisey River. 4. At permafrost and cold-dominated sites, water supply and waste disposal systems are especially subject to damage from freezing. Such damages may impair site, processes, and facilities. Several different concepts have been used to reduce the risk of damage. 5. Multimillion-dollar government programs for community improvement have been instituted in several communities in Alaska during the last decade. To achieve the overall objectives of these programs, community water supply and sewage disposal services also have been included in improvements. Modern services have been provided in many villages where permafrost and severe cold climate conditions had made such service no more than a dream previously. 6. The recent discovery of large deposits of oil and gas in the North American Arctic has provided impetus for rapid development in these areas. To accommodate this and the increased development of other natural resources, a network of roads will be required. 7. In permafrost areas, pavement design must consider not only the effect of seasonal thawing and freezing cycles but also the effect of construction on the existing thermal balance, since changes in the subsurface thermal regime may cause degradation of the permafrost that result in severe settlements and great reduction in bearing capacity. In Arctic regions, with continuous permafrost at shallow depths, satisfactory pavements are assured by restricting seasonal thawing and freezing. Targeted Words automatic detection and operating systems beam coating codes comply with conduit hand extinguisher module mount outlet plumbing plywood roofing vapor barrier
Translate the following text into Russian, paying attention to the Passive Voice structure. Building The building is composed of 12 modules, joined together on the top of the cap beams, in such a manner as to form a single building. The modules are constructed to comply with all existing codes for Arctic regions; insulated exterior walls, ceiling, and floors all with a plastic vapor barrier. On top of the modules is a truss and purlin roof structure with plywood sheathing (uninsulated) and aluminum roofing.The deck is 7.6 by 15.2 cm tongue-and -groove planking with 1.9 cm exterior plywood cover. This area is approached by a ramp of similar construction. The front entry is provided with a covered porch and steps of frame and plywood sheathing; 5.1 by 15.2 cm deck and steps, with handrails. The interior walls and ceiling are of plywood, finished with fire-retardant coatings suited to use of the various areas of the building. The floor is finished with suitable materials. All electrical conduit, switches, and outlets are surface mounted with materials approved by Underwriters" Laboratories, Inc. and suit to existing local and state codes. All plumbing is surface mounted and of material complying with existing local and state codes. All high-risk fire areas are adequately protected with automatic detection and operating systems. In addition, hand extinguishers are located in accessible areas throughout the building. Hose bibbs with attached hoses are located throughout the building for additional protective means and are served with the circulating water systems. Exercise 1 Read each sentence carefully, paying particular attention to the italicized words. Mark T if the statement is true, and go on to the next item. If, however, the statement is false, mark F and then make it correct by adding, deleting, or in some other way changing the sentence. T F A building is made up of modules joined together on the top of the cap beams. T F AH the construction materials as well as plumbing should comply with existing local and state codes. T F Electrical conduit, switches, and outlets are parts of plumbing system. T F Hose bibbs are located in high-risk fire areas for additional protective means. T F The front entry steps are covered by uninsulated plywood. T F Both the interior and exterior walls are insulated and covered by fire-retardant coating.
Exercise 2 Select the word from the target list that best answers each of the following questions below: 1.Which word describes all the water pipes, containers for storing water, etc. in a building? 2.Which word states for a point in a wiring system at which current may be taken? 3.Which word describes a smallish metal container with water or chemicals inside for putting out a fire? 4.Which noun means a construction material made of thin layers of wood glued together? 5.Which noun states for an independent part or unit which can be combined with others to form a structure or arrangement? 6.Which word means a covering on or over a surface? 7.Which word states for a sloping surface, walk, etc. joining different levels? Exercise 3 Complete each of the following sentences, being as specific as possible, in order to demonstrate your conceptual understanding of the italicized words. 1. You would use a hand extinguisher to / in case if _________________________ _____________________________________ 2. If the plumbing system doesn't work properly in your house, ________________ _____________________________________ 3. If one wants to comply with his/her country's laws, he/she should ____________ _____________________________________ 4. To mount an appliance you would _____________________________________ _____________________________________ 3. Automatic fire detection serves to _____________________________________ _____________________________________ 6. Plywood furniture impact on human health is because _____________________ _____________________________________ Exercise 4 a) Translate the following passages into Russian, paying attention to the passive constructions; b) Give a summary of each passage in English: А. Windmills and TV- a Bad Connection? Wind farms hold potential as a source of renewable energy, but they could be messing up television reception. Based on a computer model that simulates the effects of a windmill's turbine blades, a panel of engineers in Great Britain concluded that windmills block or reflect TV signals and corrupt teletext data. Viewers whose "tellies" are affected by windmill signal interference hear a buzzing sound and see ghosted images on their TV screens. Wind farm developers have cause to worry. A judge recently ruled that 680 people in east London whose TV reception was affected by the stray reflections from a building are entitled to seek compensation for the faulty reception. Since the computer model developed by the engineers shows that the signal interference caused by windmills is worse than that caused by buildings, wind farm developers may have a harder time convincing people that the only disadvantages of wind power are the noise and unsighty appearance of windmills. (Еnvironment, November. 1994) B. Chocolate Lovers Beware The chocolate bars that tempt browsing food shoppers are rich in more than fat and sugar. Tests conducted by an independent analyst in the United Kingdom found that chocolate from all major UK. companies contained residues of the organochlorine pesticide lindane. Cocoa, a main ingredient in chocolate, is grown mostly in Southern Hemisphere developing countries and is often treated with large doses of pesticides. Moreover, cocoa growers, many of whom are women working at low wages, are exposed to these pesticides during the long hours they spend in plantations and processing plants. Chocolate buyers in the United Kingdom, two-thirds of whom are also women, helped the chocolate industry earn 2.5 billion of pounds in 1991. This spring the UK-Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food agreed to start testing chocolate for pesticides while the Women's Environmental Network worked to educate consumers on the joys of organic and fairly traded chocolate. (Environment, November, 1994) C. Powerboat Pollution Recreational powerboating produces 40 times more oil pollution per year than did the Exxon Valdez spill, according to Andre Mele. In addition, because 25 percent of the fuels and lubricants consumed by a standard outboard engine are emitted as exhaust, a powerboat adds 70 times more hydrocarbons to the environment than does an average car. In fact, Mele estimates, pleasure powerboats produce between 150 million and 420 million gallons of oil and hydrocarbon pollutants a year. However, because pollution from powerboats is not as obvious as on oil slick emanating from a large tanker, little attention has been paid to this source of pollution. (Environment, December, 1993) Exercise 5 Using the texts above as well as dictionaries, give definitions of the following words and phrases. Make up meaningful sentences for each of the words or phrases, so that your sentences illustrate a conceptual knowledge of them: ghosted images, oil slick, processing plants, recreational powerboating, renewable energy, residues of the organochlorine pesticides, simulate, television reception. ГЕРУНДИЙ Герундий - это неличная форма глагола, отсутствующая в русском языке. Название "герундий" произошло от латинского глагола gerere – "действовать". Семантически герундий имеет сходство с русскими существительными на -нье, -ние: например, рисование, плавание. Герундий обеспечивает экономию языка, так как он участвует в создании более кратких и сжатых оборотов речи. Исторически эта форма; оканчивающаяся на -ing, первоначально была чисто субстантивной категорией со всеми признаками существительного. Позже появилась тенденция образовывать существительные с окончанием -ing от глаголов с частичным сохранением глагольных свойств. Следы двойственной природы герундия сохранились в современном английском языке в виде двойственности его функций: он имеет черты как существительного, так и глагола. Глагольные свойства: 1) может выражать категории залога и времени; 2) может иметь при себе прямое дополнение; 3) может определяться наречием. Номинативные свойства: 5) не выражает само действие, а только называет его; 6) в предложении играет роль подлежащего, дополнения, определения, обстоятельства, может являться частью сказуемого; 7) сочетается с предлогами, определяется притяжательными местоимениями и существительными в притяжательном падеже. Герундий часто путают с отглагольным существительным, хотя большинство лингвистов различают эти две категории. Можно проследить различия и сходства герундия и отглагольного существительного в следующих таблицах (Аристов Н.Б. Основы перевода. М., 1959; стр. 71).
СОПОСТАВЛЕНИЕ ГЕРУНДИЯ И ОТГЛАГОЛЬНОГО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОГО Отличие:
Сходство:
Двойственная грамматическая природа герундия отражается в способах его передачи на русский язык. Герундий может переводиться отглагольным существительным или неличной формой глагола. Выбор варианта перевода во многом зависит от его лексического значения, а не от его синтаксической функции, а также от удобства использования соответствующей формы в русском язьтке. Однако перевод герундия традиционно осуществляется с учетом его синтаксических функций. Как уже было упомянуто выше, герундий может выполнять следующие функции в предложении: 1) подлежащего. В роли подлежащего герундий переводится преимущественно существительным, иногда инфинитивом.
2) предикативного члена или части составного глагольного сказуемого. В данном случае герундий передается чаще всего инфинитивом.
3) определения. Герундий в функции определения обычно следует за предлогом of и переводится инфинитивом или существительным.
4) дополнения (предложного и беспредложного) к существительному, прилагательному и глаголу. В зависимости от его лексического значения и сочетаемости слов в русском языке, герундий в роли дополнения может переводиться инфинитивом, существительным или придаточным предложением.
5) обстоятельства, чаще всего времени, причины и действия, которые обычно переводятся придаточным предложением, деепричастием и существительным с предлогом. *обстоятельство времени часто следует за предлогами on (upon), after, before, in; *сопутствующее обстоятельство следует за предлогами besides, instead of. apart from, without; *обстоятельство образа действия употребляется с предлогами in, by. without. После in и by герундий переводится деепричастием или сочетанием предлогов путем, при помощи, с существительным или самостоятельным предложением; *обстоятельство условия следует за in case of, in the event of, subject to, without; *обстоятельство причины употребляется с owing to, for fear of и часто переводится личной формой глагола, существительным или деепричастием.
ГЕРУНДИАЛЬНЫЙ ОБОРОТ Герундиальный оборот обычно переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением. Существительное или притяжательное местоимение, входящее в состав герундиального оборота, становится подлежащим придаточного предложения, а герундий играет роль сказуемого.
We have just heard of our professor's having been awarded with a prize. Мы только что узнали о том, что нашему профессору присвоили награду.
EXERCISES Exercise I Compare the following sentences in English with their given translation into Russian. Pay particular attention to the ways of translating gerundial constructions:
Exercise 2 Translate the following sentences into Russian, underline gerundial constructions and state what part of the sentence the gerund is: 1. Arctic Oceans research is necessary to provide a sound scientific basis for developing national and international Rolicy for managing our Arctic resources, understanding the impact of the Arctic on the remainder of the Earth, and coping with the impacts of global change. 2. Global circulation models predict that with a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the surface temperature of the Arctic could increase by as much as 4°C. 3. In the Arctic unmanned and remote measurements by satellites will be invaluable for determining changes in ocean, ice, and atmospheric variables. 4. The dynamics of these various physical systems, their role in conjunction with biological mechanisms in initiating and regulating biological production, the transfer of energy between trophic levels, and the effect of interannual environmental variability on these processes are uncertain and need to be determined. 5. Difficulties encountered in conducting research on Arctic fish and wildlife can often be overcome through developing and applying new technological tools. Such tools include remote sensing and satellite telemetry, both now routinely used in studies of wildlife and their habitats. 6. The new research is directed at understanding the origins and consequences of increasing atmospheric concentrations of radiative trace gases, particularly methane and nitrous oxide. 7. Dimensioning a heat insulated base, for estimating the practical thermal conductivity, one has to know how much water that the insulating material in a road absorbs in a course of time. 8. By applying a horizontal layer of heat insulating material one retards the heat exchange between road surface and subgrade. 9. The first group of project tasks is directed toward understanding and predicting the behavior and movement of oil spills in an Arctic environment, particularly in the offshore regions of the Beaufort Sea. Exercise 3 Translate the following passages, state what part of the sentence the gerund is and explain how it should be translated into Russian: 6. The laying of heat generating engineering utilities directly in the ground leads to frequent emergencies as a result of their non uniform settlement during thawing of the ground. It complicates their operation and maintenance and promotes degradation of the permafrost in the construction zone. 7. Until the beginning of the 1960s, there was neither foreign nor Soviet construction experience in erecting high-head dams from local materials under severe climatic conditions. According to the convictions of that time, the air temperature that was permissible to construct the shut-off xurtains could not be lower than -5°C to -10°C, and, for the rock-fill no lower than -30°C. These restrictions led to "seasonalness" of the operations and an increase in the time and cost of construction. The Greenland Sea is one of the few regions in the world capable of ventilating the deep ocean. Of particular interest is the role of the western boundary current in supplying the deep Atlantic's interior region with buoyancy and salt, thereby controlling both the surface-driven convective regime and deep mixing. 8. Under the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the National Oil and Chemical Substances Contingency Plan, the Coast Guard, as Federal On-Scene Coordinator (OSC), is responsible for effectively directing pollution response operations for any oil spill which occurs in the coastal waters of the United States, and for initiating Federal response operations when the spiller fails to take effective measures. The discovery of oil and gas along the Alaskan coast has led to exploration and development onshore, and if the price of crude oil rises offshore drilling on the continental shelf is certain to increase rapidly within the next several years. 9. Observations of the upper atmosphere already have revealed appreciable cooling during the past decade (about 5°C). The implied change in the lower atmosphere is small and nearly impossible to measure because of uncertain assumption in weighting the enormous range of surface measurements needed to determine a global average. Clearly another advantage of the upper atmosphere as a global change indicator is that its sensitivity to local surface variability is far smaller than for the oceans and the lower atmosphere. 10. Noctilucent clouds, which form in summer near an altitude of 50 miles, are the highest clouds on earth. The dramatic increase in the brightness and occurrence of noctilucent cloud displays since their discovery is believed to be related to decreasing upper-atmosphere temperatures and to increasing levels of methane, which reacts with oxygen to form water vapor. Incompletely understood radar and lidar echoes from the region of noctilucent cloud formation are believed to hold keys to determining their relationship to global change. 11. An improved three-dimensional numerical computer model for simulating circulation and oil-spill trajectories is being tested for predicting the movement and dispersal of spilled oil. The necessary data from the coastal environment of Alaska have been assembled for use in a model for predicting the transport of oil into and along a beach.
Targeted Words alleviate bronchial cilia conjecture constituent contaminant corrosion deterioration flora larynx mucous membranes ozone pharynx photochemical relative humidity respiratory severe smelting SO2 spasms stomata vulnerable Translate the following text into Russian, paying attention to the ing-form structures, and identify each ING-form structure as the gerundial or participial. The Costs of Air Pollution The costs of air pollution are difficult to assess. Visible evidence of the costs resulting from air pollution comes from reduced real estate values, repairs and replacements from corrosion, cleaning costs, animal and agricultural damages, and many more sources, not excluding the effects on human health. The corrosion of metals and other building materials is 3 to 30 times greater in cities than in rural areas, depending on the type of pollutant. Corrosive action also depends on the amount of moisture in the air. The rate of corrosion increases sharply when the relative humidity is over 50 %. Pollution effects range from damage to seemingly permanent stone structures to damage to electrical insulators. Concentrations of ozone in photochemical smog can cause the deterioration and cracking of rubber, a common electrical insulator. In some cities where photochemical smog is severe, car owners can purchase special anti-ozone tires for their automobiles to help alleviate the problem. Dust and particulate matter soil our clothes and home furnishings and can cause damage to delicate instruments. Crops, shrubs, trees and other plants in general suffer from air pollution. There are many cases of industrial pollution having effects on the flora of an area. The classic example is Copper Basin, Tennessee, where a copper smelting plant was built shortly after the Civil War. Its production increased in the late 1800s, and consequently its SO2 emissions. In time, these deadly fumes killed the plant life of some 30,000 acres of the surrounding timberland. Plants are particularly vulnerable to gaseous pollutants. Gases enter the microscopic openings, called stomata, on the outside of the plant leaves and attack the plant cells. The cost of air pollution on human health is difficult to estimate. Rather than conjecture about monetary costs of air pollution on health, let's consider and become aware of the effects on the respiratory system. The respiratory system has natural protection mechanisms against foreign materials. The hair within the nostrils filters out large particles in the air. To auardithe lungs against finer particles, the upper respiratory tracts-the nasal cavity, pharynx, laryirx, and bronchial tubes- are lined with mucous membranes that excrete liquid mucus. The fine particles are caught in the mucus and are swept out of the respiratory system by the action of tiny hairlike projections called cilia. This natural defense is effective for particulate matter, which is nature's major contaminant in air. but the respiratory tract is vulnerable to gaseous pollutants. When attacked by smog constituents, the cilia becomes less efficient, allowing particulate matter to penetrate deeper into the lungs. The irritation caused by pollutants causes coughing, increased mucus flow, and muscle spasms that limit the air flow to and from the lungs. (From Developing Vocabulary Concepts, edition by S.L.Nist, M.L.Simpson.)
Exercise 1 Select one of the words from the general vocabulary list to complete each of the sentences. Each word will be used only once and each is in its proper form. 1. One thing that everyone can do to help __________ the pollution problem is to recycle cans and newspapers. 2. Plants are especially __________ to gaseous pollutants because these pollutants easily enter the plants" leaves. 3. SO2 is one of the __________ of smog pollutants. 4. Muscle __________ produced by coughing reduces air flow to and from the lungs. 5. Ozone can cause the __________ and cracking of automobile tires. 6. The major __________ in the air is various particles that can find their way into the respiratory system. 7. Air pollution can have considerable __________ effects __________ because pollutants are so expensive to clean up. Exercise 2 Read each sentence carefully and mark T if the statement is true. If, however, the statement is false, mark F. T F 1. The cilia in the respiratory system help protect against the entry of foreign bodies. T F 2. Severe coughing causes spasms that limit the flow of oxygen to and from the lungs. T F 3. Relative humidity has little effect on the corrosive action of metals or other vulnerable materials. T F 4. Contaminants in the air alleviate damage to flora by blocking their stomata. T F 5. The monetary costs from SO2 and photochemical smog are great. T F 6. Ozone, which is often found in smog, can cause the deterioration of automobile tires. Exercise 3 Complete each of the following sentences, being as specific as possible, in order to demonstrate your conceptual understanding of the italicized words. 1. To alleviate a headache, you might ________________________________ 2. Contaminants of air include______________________________________ 3. When your monetary situation deteriorates, you ___________________________ 4. Severe corrosion of the water pipes in your home might cause _________________ 5. An example of a respiratory ailment would be ____________________________ 6. To state that there is life in other galaxies is conjecture, because _______________ 7. An example of flora is ______________________________________________ 8. An example of something that causes corrosion is ___________________________ Exercise 4 a) Translate the following passages into Russian, paying attention to the gerundial structures; b) Give a brief summary of each passage in English: A. Inviting Bambi into the Backyard To help keep from expanding the list of endangered and extinct species, many nature conservation organizations have focused on creating urban habitats that are inviting to wildlife. "Wildlife shouldn't be treated as if it shouldn't exist in a city," says Peter Berg, director of San Francisco's Planet Drum, an ecological education group. "Wildlife is the biological monitor of the health of our cities." Some animals have already successfully made the move into cities across the United States: many fish, frogs and salamanders are quietly flourishing in city ponds; even deer, raccoons, and coyotes have made a home in local parks. Foresting wildlife is as easy as planting certain flowers in backyards or creating a niche with water and sufficient shelter on front porches. The National Wildlife Federation and the National Institute for Urban Wildlife are also working on the creation of urban booklets with tips for individuals, schools, or other organizations. (Environment, October, 1994) B. Harvesting Nickel Scientists at the U.S.Bureau of Mines are sowing mustard seeds to recover metals. They hope that the resultant plants-known as hyperaccumulators because they absorb large amounts of certain metals from soil-will, in effect, "mine" the soil's nickel. After haversting, cutting, drying, and baling the crop from the 400,000 Streptanthus seeds planted in a one-acre test plot near Modesto, California, scientists will burn the plants in an incinerator. They expect the ash residue to be 15 to 20 percent nickel. According to the bureau scientists* opinion, with hyperaccumulation, "you recover metals without tearing up the land, piling up wastes, or causing the other environment problems associated with conventional mines. It might prove most useful as a remediation tool. Hyperaccumulators could remove metals from contaminated soil." (Environment, July/August, 1994) C. Batty Friends Vampires are not the only ones who consider bats their friends. Bats help farmers by eating insects and pests that damage crops, thereby reducing the need for pesticides. They also pollinate plants, spread seeds, and control populations of mosquitoes and other nocturnal bugs. Scientists estimate that a colony of 150 large brown bats can eat about 38,000 cucumber beetles in a single summer. Cucumber beetles produce corn root worms, which can destroy corn, spinach, and vine plants, costing U.S. farmers up to $1 billion annually in lost productivity. Close to 40 percent of the bat species in the United States are endangered or threatened, and intentional destruction of bats habitants and populations by humans is part of the problem. The U.S.Department of Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service and the U.S. Forest Service have joined forces with Bat Conservation International to help protect bats and to educate landowners about the benefits of preserving bat habitats. (Environment, October, 1994) Exercise 5 Explain the meaning of the following words and phrases, give their Russian equivalents, make up sentences of your own. the list of endangered and extinct species, nature conservation organization (society), habitat, to forest wildlife, conventional mine (mining), remediation tool, contaminated soil, pest, pesticide, lost productivity. ИНФИНИТИВ Инфинитив относится к неличным формам глагола. Его формальным признаком является частица to. Инфинитив, подобно герундию, только называет действие, не указывая ни на число, ни на лицо. Он, как и все неличные формы глагола, не может согласовываться с подлежащим и, следовательно, не может самостоятельно выступать в предложении в качестве сказуемого. Как и герундий, инфинитив произошел от существительного и, подобно герундию, может выполнять в предложении функции существительного, а именно: подлежащего, дополнения, обстоятельства, части именного сказуемого. Выполняя функции существительного, инфинитив также обладает и некоторыми глагольными свойствами.
Глагольные свойства инфинитива: 1. Инфинитив может иметь прямое дополнение:
2. Инфинитив может определяться наречием:
3. Инфинитив имеет залоговые и временные отличия: to build - строить to have been built - быть построенным Способ перевода инфинитива на русский язык зависит от его функции в предложении,
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