Условных предложений и эмфазы

135. It was during the reign of Theodosios I, the Great, 379—395, that the Olympic games were held at Constantinople (393), a number of antique monuments being brought to adorn the capital in honour of the occasion.

136. It was during the time when Latin was spoken, however, that the first modifications had to be made in the alphabet.

137. Opponents of the Censorship complained that plays in which serious problems were seriously discussed were refused a licence by the Censor, whereas frivolous plays received official approval, however debasing they might be to public taste and morality.

138. There is a strong probability that it was the ancient Egyptians who first hit on the alphabetic principle; but we cannot prove it for we cannot show that all or even a majority of the characters which ultimately became the alphabet we know were used in Egyptian texts of any period.

139. A little reflection will show that to the theory, thus boldly stated, there are many objections. No account

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is taken of imagination, which must necessarily play an important part in the highest forms of poetry; nor again is there any place for the subjective element — the innermost feelings of the individual poet which must find expression in all real poetry.

140. We know that Egypt established shrines to Amen in Palestine, and that they disappeared without leaving a trace. It is not impossible that the Babylonians may have attempted to do a similar thing.

141. Engels points out that labour, even of the most primitive kind, as in the fashioning and use of hunting and fishing implements, makes men perceive things with a new interest, enlarges their perceptions, «widens their horizon», makes them aware through their practical activity and from their perceptions of ever more properties of natural objects. And indeed, from these first beginnings, it has always been through their advancing mastery over nature that succeeding generations of men have come to know more and more of the properties of natural objects: each stage of advance has meant enlarged perceptions, new discoveries, wider horizons.

142. The discovery that words are arbitrary or conventional signs was an important discovery in science, obvious as it may seem. For it used often to be believed — and some people still believe it today — that a particular word is in some mysterious way «the right word» for a particular thing.

143. The modern novel, whatever its quality and degree of success, certainly accepts a naturalistic point of view, at least as a starting-point. The reader is invited to see the novelist's picture of life as though it were actually happening in the real world.

144. It has been argued, indeed, that Shakespeare must himself have been in Italy and Scotland, that he painted from the life, from personal observation and memory. Probably, however, he was never out of England, nor need we assume other resources than his all-embracing sympathy and imagination which enabled him to realize and harmonize into a vivid whole the miscellaneous information that could be derived from books and association with travellers.

145. If the Egyptians did indeed fail, after three thousand years, to discover the principle of alphabetic writing,

it is striking evidence that man might never have had this art except for the lucky accident which we shall now proceed to describe.

146. The long awaited revenge did not indeed take place until sixty years after the event, when not only were the treaties themselves destroyed, but also sets of ivory panels which must once have adorned the king's throne and illustrated the men of Iran bringing in their vassal tribute to the king of Assyria.

147. Throughout the long period from the fourth to the fourteenth century mosaics were the things of primary importance, and it is to them that the highest place must be assigned in a study of Byzantine art, just as it is to sculpture in ancient Greece and to panel painting in Renaissance Italy that the student turns when in search of the characteristic and most accomplished art.

148. This book is not and could not possibly be a thorough coverage of the whole field — often volumes of information are available on topics treated only briefly here — but it does give a quick survey of general principles relating to nearly all aspects of the subject.

149. Interesting as is the matter of the History and Essays, it is the style in which they are written that gives them so high a place in literature.

150. Important as this chapter was, it nevertheless describes a different kind of institution, and is not strictly comparable with the others.

151. Karlgren made the assumption that those two characters had at the time of their invention the same, or nearly the same, sound, however much they may have come to differ in any modern dialect.

152. In studying the works of the early Renaissance sculptors it is important to remember that they at least had before their eyes tangible examples of the very work they admired, whereas the painters anxious though they were to link themselves with the Greecoroman past, had no models of Greek or Roman painting to refer to.

153. To the south, however, the inhabitants of the Guinea Coast, protected as they were by dense forests to the north, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the South and West, had not been affected by the contact with the outer world for hundreds — perhaps thousands — of years, until discovered by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.

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154. The German language, for instance, is supposed to be not unlike English, and word for word there are many resemblances.

155. «The Tatler» was superseded in 1711 by «The Spectator»,¹⁶ and it is in the articles published in this periodical that Addison's work shows at its best.

156. The language develops slowly through a number of epochs, by modifying its vocabulary and grammar. It develops without undergoing sudden and revolutionary changes. The views expressed in language, on the other hand do undergo fundamental changes.

157. The facts do tell us this: here is a man whose birth and upbringing took place on a farm. Thus his childhood was passed in a way of life that even then was no longer representative of most childhoods. Read, in being reared in the remote countryside is one of the diminishing few who came to know a traditional England that has now died.

158. We have no other way of finding out about the world — that is of gaining knowledge — than through the exercise of our senses. Nor can our senses be so constituted as always or even usually to deceive us. If they were, we would not be able to live at all.

159. Another earthenware jug, shaped like an egg, was 54 cm high, had a capacity of 150 kg, but was only 13 cm in diameter at the mouth, which made it easy to seal. It could have been in such a container that, as records have it, the emperor sent wine when feasting soldiers after a victorious expedition.

160. Whatever the results of thought which are to be expressed, and whatever language they are expressed in, they must satisfy the basic requirements of the reflection of reality in thought.

161. It is not improbable that at one time Borneo was inhabited by people of the negrito race, small remnants of which are still to be found in islands adjacent to all the coasts of Borneo as well as in Malay Peninsula.

162. Vast as the continent of Asia is, it is not nearly as congested linguistically as Europe or Africa (or even the Caucasus), for large stretches are sparsely populated.

¹⁶ «The Tatler», «The Spectator» — название еженедельных журналов, издаваемых Аддисоном (1672—1719).

163. This study shares a fault not uncommon in recent Italian scholarly publication, of blowing up an article or monograph into a book ranging far afield from the central theme.

164. Included in the «Plays Pleasant» ¹⁷ was what is probably the authors's greatest literary success. This is the play «Candida» which reaches a high level in technique and character-drawing, and is also very direct in the lesson it is meant to teach.

165. Whether this was the same combat between winter and summer which is found later in European folklore, as some scholars think, I dare not say. But it may not be useless to observe that two of the highest achievements of the Greek spirit, the drama and bucolic poetry, have their origin in simple rural customs.

166. Remains of bouses of the half-underground type, afterwards so universal, appear only in the middle stratum, showing that not until then had the population so multiplied and mutual confidence sufficiently matured, for the more ancient, temporary, above-ground houses to begin to be supplanted by more substantial and comfortable structures.

167. His character (Carlyle's) ¹⁸ was not an amiable one; he was intensely egotistic, often selfish and petty; and these qualities could not fail to affect his work. To them must be ascribed his occasional lapse from fairness in criticism, his peculiarly distorted views on certain subjects, his whims and fads, and his offensive way of speaking to those whom he considered narrow-minded.

168. The painters seem to have constituted a school, working under the direction of a single master. The differences of style in the models that were followed also had a role to play, and it is for that reason that each of the eight painters does not seem to show complete uniformity in his work.

169. With the decline of classical Latin of literature and the increasingly greater vulgarization of the popular standardized Latin of the lower classes of the Empire there was also the beginning of the normal process of division

¹⁷ «Plays Pleasant» — сборник пьес Бернарда Шоу (1856— 1950).

¹⁸ Carlyle — Томас Карлейль (1795—1881), английский философ и историк.

brought about by more difficult communications, decline of trade, and the increasing tendency for each community to become economically self-sufficient. This process can, and normally does, continue ad iufinitum ¹⁹ until each village develops its own local peculiarities of speech; and this condition is well exemplified in Italy, where the standardized Latin of Imperial times gave rise to a multitude of local speeches.

170. In the first month of the following year, reminded of the previous spring by the flowering of the plum-trees before his house, he went to the Western Pavilion, and stood there gazing. But gaze as he might, there was to his mind no resemblance to the scene of the year before.

171. Here we find a condition that causes a considerable waste and which could have been avoided by a better selection of words.

172. It might be thought that this second set of principles is as general as the first. Such is not the case, e.g. the ideas of singular and plural as exhaustive categories are not common to all languages: Greek and Gothic have three numbers: Singular, Dual and Plural.

173. However important the role of Rome may have been in developing the use of vault, arch and dome in imperial days, the initiative had passed from Italy by the fifth century, and it was in Asia Minor and Constantinople that the vaulted basilics and the domed structures saw their full development as Christian buildings.