Hand-waving results – vague, indefnite

Room for caveats – room for caution, warning

The problem of detecting

The characteristic formulation of

Studies regarding the effects of

A process that insures the fidelity of

Significant mechanistic insights into the function of

A considerable amount of

The implications of these findings for

In particular

Not surprisingly

Along with

Well over half of

In large part,

Respectively

On one hand, on the other hand

Firstly, secondly

Under some conditions

Both alone and in … complexes

In terms of this belief

We find that

We have shown that

(It) is constructed and included in

(It) will expedite the search for and analysis of

(It) is implemented to obtain

(It) is included in

(It) is proposed that

(It) plays an important role in

(It) accounts for

(They) are affected by changes in

(They) are shown to be translated into subsequent changes in

(They) are often the opposite of what is suggested by

(They) are apt to

(They) have been implicated in

(They) have been the most extensively studied at both the functional and structural levels

This is shown to be …and to handle

Little is known about how

Classic analysis assumes that

This paper describes … and argues that

This paper expands the literature by examining how

The results provide additional insight and richness to our understanding

In this review, we will discuss what we have learned from

The aim of the present review is to provide, firstly, an overview of the major findings of studies concerning

This review revealed that even though research on

The research has not brought clarity in

The limitations of those studies are discussed

Plans are examined

Section 2. Grammar workout

Misplaced modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a participial phrase orother modifier that comes before the subject, but does NOT refer to the subject. Look at this sentence:

Driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the road in front of Liza's car. (INCORRECT;)

This sentence is incorrect because it seems to say that a herd of sheep – rather than Liza – was driving down the road. The participial phrase is misplaced. The sentence could be corrected as shown:

As Liza was driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the road in front of her. (CORRECT),

This sentence now correctly has Liza in the driver's seat instead of the sheep.

The following sentence structures are often misplaced.

Present participle. Walking along the beach, theship was spotted by the men.

Correction: Walking along the beach, the men spotted the ship.

Past participle. Based on this study, the scientist could make several conclusions.

Correction: Based on this study, several conclusions could be made by the scientist.

Appositive. A resort city in Arkansas, the population of Hot Springs is about 35,000.

Correction: A resort city in Arkansas, Hot Springs has a population ofabout 35,000.

Reduced adjective clause. While peeling onions, his eyes began to water.

Correction: While he was peeling onions, his eyes began to water.

Adjective phrases. Warm and mild, everyone enjoys the climate of the Virgin Islands.

Correction: Everyone enjoys the warm, mild climate of the Virgin Islands.

Expressions with like or unlike. Like most cities, parking is a problem in San Francisco.

Correction: Like most cities, San Francisco has a parking problem

Structure items with misplaced modifiers are usually easy to spot. They generally consist of a modifying element at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma, with the rest or most of the rest of the sentence missing. The answer choices tend to be long. To find the answer, you must decide what subject the modifier correctly refers to.

Examples:

Using a device called a cloud chamber, ____________

(A) experimental proof for the atomic theory was found by Robert Millikin.

(B) Robert Millikin's experimental proof for the atomic theory was found.

(C) Robert Millikin found experimental proof for the atomic theory.

(D) there was experimental proof found for the atomic theory by Robert Millikin.

Choices (A) and (B) are incorrect because the modifier (Using a device called a cloud chamber) could not logically refer to the subjects (experimental proof and Robert Millikin's experimental proof). (D) is incorrect because a modifier can never properly refer to the introductory words there or it.

1. Fearing economic hardship, _____

(A) many Ukrainians emigrated to other countries in the 1990s.

(B) emigration from Ukraine to other countries took place in the 1990s.

(C) it was in the 1990s that many Ukrainians emigrated to other countries.

(D) an emigration took place in the 1990s from Ukraine to other countries.

2. Rich and distinctive in flavor, ____

(A) there is in the United States a very important nut crop, the pecan.

(B) the most important nut crop in the United States, the pecan.

(C) farmers in the United States raise pecans, a very important nut crop.

(D) pecans are the most important nut crop in the United States.

3.____________ orbiting from 2.7 to 3.6 billion miles from the sun.

(A) The astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto in 1930

(B) Pluto was discovered by the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh in 1930

(C) It was in 1930 that the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto

(D) The discovery of Pluto was made by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930

4. A popular instrument,____.

(A) only a limited role has been available to the accordion in classical music.

(B) there is only a limited role for the accordion in popular music.

(C) classical music provides only a limited role for the accordion.

(D) the accordion has played only a limited role in classical music.

Unit 1-23. INTERPRETATION OF MEANING IN SUCCESSFUL LINGUA FRANCA INTERACTION

Section 1. Guidelines for reading texts on the use of international English in European business

The insights gained from ELF research during recent years have made a considerable impact on the conceptualization of English as an international language and have told a lot about interactional practices and pragmatic strategies successful ELF speakers use. These insights into successful ELF usage are gained from the observation and analysis of spoken data, and there are very good reasons for doing so. The fact that much of what we know about ELF today comes from researching spoken interactions, at one of the central principles governing such spoken interactions – the principle of turn-taking is arguably a central issue to be investigated in ELF. But despite the huge body of work on turn-taking, in general, and the immense growth of research on ELF over the last few years, turn-taking management in English as a lingua franca remains still very much unknown territory.

Christiane Meierkord’s study analyses informal non-native speaker (NNS} – non-native speaker conversation to see what types of NNS errors lead to what types of NNS response constituting negative input available to the NNS. This study further examines the differential effect of the NNS response on subsequent NNS speech in a given conversation.

Text 1-23. INTERPRETING SUCCESSFUL LINGUA FRANCA INTERACTION

(Based on Christiane Meierkord’s analysis of non-native/non-native small talk conversations in English)

Christiane Meierkord received her Ph.D. in English linguistics at Düsseldorf University in 1996 for her thesis on English as medium for intercultural communication. Since 1997 she has been a lecturer at Erfurt University where she pursues her post-doctoral research project on Routine expressions and structures in child, adolescent and adult English learner language. Her major research interests are: English as international lingua franca, varieties of English, methodology of Discourse and Conversation Analysis and research into learner language.

Introduction

Until recently, most of the research on intercultural communication has focussed on native /non-native speaker interaction both in the context of immigration and minorities and in intercultural politics and business. Interaction among non-native speakers of a language, however, has not received much attention. When speakers do not share each other's language but can resort to a third language for communicative purposes, they use a lingua franca, a language which is the mother tongue to neither of them. This paper is concerned with this latter type of intercultural communication.

A lingua franca may be any natural or any artificial language which is used among speakers of different mother tongues. It may be used either intra nationally, like e.g. English in India or Nigeria, or inter nationally e.g. English between Germans and Japanese. Whereas speakers of intra national lingua francas have often acquired these as nativized second languages and use them in a variety of domains, most participiants in inter national lingua franca conversations need to be regarded as learners of a language they use for restricted purposes only. Because of the diverse linguistic and cultural background of speakers, conversation in lingua franca English is rather heterogeneous. In the course of this paper, the most noticeable features of lingua franca English small talk conversation will be discussed. Suggestions will be made for both the analysis and the interpretation of intercultural conversations involving speakers who do not form a stable speech community and who, therefore, need to negotiate the norms for every individual conversation depending on the specific participants.