The heritage and revival of cybernetics

The members of the next generation of cyberneticians shifted the emphasis from the structural approach to the functional one. The pioneers of the artificial intelligence (AI) research substituted McCulloch and Pitts' binary strings of zeros and ones by more general symbols. Procedures on physical symbol systems were viewed as the necessary and sufficient means for general (i.e. natural and artificial) intelligent action. While the symbolistic paradigm became predominant, the perspectives of the cyberneticians and AI researchers did not separate immediately, but the debate became very sharply related to the Perception battle. The Perceptron is a mathematical construction of an adaptive neural network being able to learn and classify inputs. It was defined by Rosenblatt (Rosenblatt 1962) by extending the MCP rule by modifying synaptic weights. Minsky and Papert proved in 1969 (Minsky and Papert 1969) that a single layer Perceptron cannot solve the exclusive OR problem. Perceptrons were assumed to be able to classify only linearly separable patterns. The implication of the critique was the serious restriction on funding neural network research. However, the critique is not valid for multilayer neural networks.

Many concepts of cybernetics revived. Brain theory, cognitive science systems biology, and implemented ideas emerged by cybernetics.

The brain is a physical structure which is controlled and also controls, learns and teaches, processes and creates information, recognizes and generates patterns, organizes its environment and is organized by it. Furthermore, closed causal loops and self-referential systems implement the iterative nature of learning and interpretation.

Many concepts of cybernetics returned in a somewhat different context to cognitive science without being credited. McCulloch's embodied mind notion, von Foerster's critiques on the controversial computational paradigm of AI and cognitive science, and the concept of circular causality all returned related to the embodied cognition (see e.g. Ziemke 2005).

Systems biology is an emergent movement to combine system-level description with microscopic details. It might be interpreted as the renaissance of cybernetics and of system theory. The systems biological approach emphasizes the integration of components (mostly proteins and genes) by dynamical models. Internal control mechanisms exist which maintain the function of the system.

The analysis of dynamics and stability of large networks of elements interconnected by positive and negative feedback connections also grew up from ideas inherent in cybernetics. The strategy is applied in many disciplines, from chemical reaction networks via biochemical, cellular, ecological and epidemic networks, to many socioeconomic situations, such as international relations, economic trades etc.

Cybernetics has a great potential for future research (Umpleby 2007) by offering a common way of thinking and language to develop theories for machines, organisms, groups and societies.

20. Translate into English:

Обратная связь является фундаментальным понятием кибернетики, особенно теории управления и теории информации. Обратная связь позволяет контролировать и учитывать действительное состояние управляемой системы (т. е., в конечном счёте, результаты работы управляющей системы) и вносить соответствующие корректировки в её алгоритм управления. В технических системах контрольная информация о работе управляемого объекта поступает по цепи Обратная связь к оператору или автоматическому управляющему устройству

UNIT FOUR

Texts: Distributed Control Systems; Servomechanism, Regulator and Process Control

Grammar: Participle I, Participle II, Perfect Participle; Absolute Participle Construction

1.Memorize the words:

distributed control system (DSC) – распределительная система управления

domain – область, сфера; владения; имение

peer – ровня; всматриваться; вглядываться

availability – наличие

proliferation – распространение; быстрое увеличение

rough – приблизительный; грубый; резкий

refinery – нефтеочистительный завод

batch – партия; группа; пачка

duly – должным образом; вовремя

inclusion – включение

implement – выполнять

cluster – группа; скопление

emulate – соревноваться

crude – грубый; необработанный

embody – воплощать; заключать в себе, содержать; осуществлять

redundancy – излишек; избыточность

2. Translate the text