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World Englishes The 20th century will still be the century of the men who speak English Theodore Roosevelt English is no longer the possession of the British, or even the British and the Americans, but... exists in an increasingly large number of different varieties... But the most important development of all is seen in the emergence of varieties that are identified with and are specific to particular countries from among the former British colonies. In West Africa, in the West Indies, and in Pakistan and India... it is no longer accepted by the majority that the English of England, with RP as its accent, are the only possible models of English to be set before the young. (pp. 293) Randolph Quirk 1962
I myself came from the Inner Circle of Englishes, the OVEs (Old Variety of Englishes) as they are called in South-East Asia; so I would like to start by reminding you that within this circle there are and always have been many different Englishes around. I’m not talking about the relatively recent worldwide varieties – British, North American, South African, Oceanic; but about the old dialects within Britain itself, Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex, and Kentish at one period in the language’s history.
M.A.K. Halliday
Many historians and sociologists ask a question how it happened that in 1600 England – second-rate country, in the 19th c. the British Empire dominated in the world. The well-known phrase The Sun never sets in the British Empire was transformed into The Sun never sets in the empire of the English language. To put things metaphorically, whereas once Britannia ruled the waves, now it is English which rules them.
l language spread -- a process during which the uses and/or users of a language increase, often under conditions of political expansionism, prestige or technological influence. Quirk’s (1988) analysis is considerably more complex, dividing the spread of English into three separate varieties – imperial, demographic and econocultural.
English as a GLOBAL language In Mass Media there are numerous facts about English spread worldwide, for example: n 400mln English mother tongue speakers n 350 mln English as a second language n 100 mln use it fluently as a foreign language n 2/3 world scientists write in English n ¾ world mail in English n 80% electronic information n In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5%
Criticism of English n Negative impact of English was first noticed in British colonies, in India, Ghandi, national leader, stated it brings alienation, intoxication, denationalization and mental slavery, later on other terms were coined internationally: Linguistic imperialism, linguicism, anglocentricity, glottopolitics
n English & Ideology: Some politicians state that British Council was set up as an institution to promote English, that English invasion was masterminded.
l In China teachers of English initiated the slogan which has become global “ Think global, teach local! Mind the gap! “
l American English also contributed to English invasion: in 1986 the Economist assembled a list of English words that have become more or less universal: airport, hotel, passport, telephone, bar, soda, cigarette, sport, golf, tennis, stop, O.K.,weekend, jeans, know-how, sex, no problem IT loans in the Netherlands Password User Surfen browsen bloggen mailen deleten printen forwarden editen typen Sports loans - no Dutch equivalents for sport terms (racen, squashen, joggen, fitnessen, golf, keeper, penalty
Code-switching The room is vol people (full of) I have ook received it (too) They try, nee, they tried to help us (no) And then you neem another one (took) He distributed it aan everybody (to)
Pakistan Bootpolish – to lick sb’s boots Cheap –sly, petty, low-class Lift – special attention Light – electric power Meter – he’s lost his temper “His meter has gone full circle” Korea Second – kept mistress Super- supermarket T- T-shirt Talent- TV actor Old miss – unmarried woman past conventional age of marrying, spinster Over - overcoat Pro- TV/ radio guide Rouge - lipstick
Thailand Air- air-conditioned Apartmet Campaign – advertising Fan – girl/boyfriend Over – overexaggerate Repeat – repeat a year in a college Smart – elegantly dressed Japan Companion – attractive young lady at the exhibition Half- half-Japanese Hearing – listening Hot –hot coffee Talent –young media celebrity Silver – relating to old age Text – textbook of foreign language Tobacco - cigarette Italian - fame – rumour Spanish – assistant - daily helping woman Audience- court hearing Librarian – book seller Mascara – disguised person Ghana (Семенец О.Е.,1985) Linguist – a person who speaks on behalf of a tribe leader Oracle - herbalist (Quack - in Western Africa) Cover cloth - overcoat Canvas – shoes A motor - bicycle Storey – (storeyhouse) – more than 1 Electrolux – any fridge Colgate - any --- Kodak - any --- Hoover - any – To take seed/ to take in - to become pregnant Euro-English
Brussels to refer collectively to EU institutions, Maastricht to refer to the agreement signed there, Schengen land Euro land, Euro area, and Euro zone for those countries where the euro has been adopted as the currency, Eurosceptic for someone skeptical of European integration, internal market, a designation for the EU as a free-trade zone, and Berlaymont, a synonym for “red tape,” as well as designations such as the “four freedoms” Indeed, the term member state itself, a European invention, says much about how Europeans are molding language to accommodate a new political reality. Varieties of English
The term “variety” is an academic term used for any kind of language production, whether we are viewing it as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own inimitable individual characteristics.
Among the varieties of English, there is a division into 1. the “Old Englishes” (usually British, American,Australian, Canadian and a few others) and 2. the “New Englishes” that have emerged in such nations as India, Nigeria,Singapore, and the Philippines. 3. It has become customary to use the plural form ‘Englishes’ to stress the diversity to be found in the language today, and to stress that English no longer has one single base of authority, prestige and normativity.
The concepts of language variety and variation lie at the heart of the world Englishes enterprise: “varieties of English,”
“localized varieties of English,” “non-native varieties of English,” “second-language varieties of English,” “new varieties of English.”
The issue of linguistic variety is also central to both traditional dialectology and contemporary linguistics, where it is often subsumed into the study of language variation and change. New varieties of English are also known as
Global Englishes International Englishes New Englishes World Englishes
Tom McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)
Simplification of English l Basic English – constructed language, l 1930 Charles Kay Ogden - 7 weeks l Words selected via tests -850 words l Simplified grammar which keeps it correct l Idioms not included l Words are pluralized with the help of S l Each of 300 verbs can be turned into nouns by adding ER, ING; into adj by adding ING, ED l Adjectives turn into adverbs by LY l Adjectives can be inverted with UN Operations – 100 words: l Come, give, get, go, keep, let, put, seem, take, be, do, have, say, see, send, may, will l About, across, after, at, among, between, by, down, from, in l A, any, every, no, other, such, some l North, south, east, west, please, yes Things – 400 words: Things – 200 picturable words: Qualities - descriptive words l Able, acid, angry, automatic l Waiting, warm, wet, wide, wise, yellow, young Qualities -50 opposites: l Awake, bad, bent, bitter, certain, cold, complete, cruel, l Thin, white, wrong l EASY English – simplified at Level A, Level B
l A – 1200 words as a foreign language l B - 2800 words, Cambridge First Certificate l Commonwealth English – standard English spoken within Commonwealth l Plain English (simple writing style) l Globish - simplified, most common English words, made as a result common practice
Common Features of WE Many New Englishes show a greater preference for forming yes/no questions by a rising intonation pattern, rather than by auxiliary inversion. She’s coming tomorrow? (=‘Is she coming tomorrow?’ – IndSAf Eng) She promised you? (Sgp Eng; Anthony learned this from you or you learned this from Anthony? (Sgp Eng; To my sister sometime I speak English. (Sgp Eng; Q: Zulu? (i.e. Do you speak Zulu as well?) A: Yah, and Zulu I speak. Bokamba (1992:138--40) notes a common tendency in sub-Saharan African Eng to reduplicate adjectives to form adverbs: Quickquick ‘quickly’; small-small ‘in small doses’; slow-slow ‘slowly’.
Kachru notes examples like different-different things and one-one piece. The semantics here is distributive, with a stylistic nuance of emphasis. In IndSAf Eng wh- words can be reduplicated with the semantics ‘plural/distributive’ based on details of the syntax of the Indic substrates. Who-who came? (= ‘Who (of several people) came?) What-what they said? (= ‘What (different) things did they say?’) The use of -s plural markers is overgeneralized. luggages, furnitures, firewoods, or grasses/ discontents, informations
Singlish English in Singapore = English –based creole spoken colloquially in Singapore Numerous cases of code-switching (Chinese, Malay, Tamil) Broken English/ bad English → Speak Good English Movement Schools discourage students from taking Singlish, but Singlish is often used for humorous effect, when the audience is local., in the Army, in coffee-shops & restaurants
Singlish as a sociolect phenomenon. Sometimes, analysts prefer to use the terms basilang, mesolang and acrolang, rather than basilect, mesolect and acrolect, to emphasise that they are dealing with developing competence in an L2 Acrolectal - high-class form, well-educated people in informal situations, close to BrE This guy’s Singlish is very good
Mesolectal – middle class, semi-formal situations Dis guy Singlish very powerful one
Basilectal – colloquial, unique lexical, phonological & grammatical features Dis guy Singlish is bey powerful one
Singlish Phonology /p/ t/ k/ become unaspirated esp among Malay Singaporeans → Pat, tin, come → bat, din, gum /t/ /d/ → three → tree, then → den The distinction between /l/ & /r/ not found at basilectal level - “Use your blain!”
Plural – s is often omitted which might be the result of Chinese influence which does not distinguish between single and plural forms Singlish is syllable-timed compared with other varierties of English which are stress-timed Pitch tones are well-defined, tones resemble Chinese Singlish tends to preserve tone of loan words from Mandarin and other languages Singlish Grammar Nouns are optionally marked for plurality. Articles are optional too.: He can play piano. I like to read novel. Your computer got virus one, izzit? As a copular and auxiliary verb be is often omitted: Dis house very nice/ Dat car not worth the money / You looking for trouble, izzit? Past Tense markers are optional: He talk for so long, never stop, not even when I ask him. I eat liao (I ate or I have eaten) How come he never pay just now? (Negation+ past tense marker) Interrogative This book you want or not? Can or not? They never study, is it? You don’t like that, is it? Reduplication My boy-boy is going to primary school. We two friend-friend one. Want to go Orher walk walk see see or not? (Orchard Road) You got take the small-small one. 1. Kena is an auxiliary to mark the passive voice: He was scolded – He kena scold (negative evauation) VS * he kena praised. Singlish Discouse Particles Lah - Drink, lah! – Come on, drink! (in the end of the sentence to assert solidarity)
What / wat/ - But he very good at sports what! Mah – This one can also work mah! Leh – command, complaint, claim: Give me leh! Daughter: Mum, it’s private. How can I let you read it? Mother: Can la. I’m your own mother.
Wife: You bought cheese, Farouk? (= ‘Did you buy cheese, Farouk?’) Husband: No’, but lot butter I bought. (= ‘No, though I did buy a lot of butter’) (No’ = [noυ]) Why didn’t you come in? B: You told me to wait here, what
Manglish / Malgish Variant of colloquial English spoken in Malaysia. The language shares a substantial pool with Singlish, some experts claim they are the same languages with a few slang words found in one and non-existent in another. Malay is the country’s official language since 1968. As English is widely spoken, many Malay words penetrated into informal English or Mangled English. The impact of other languages (Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Hokkien) spoken in Malaysia is also taken into account. Many speakers of Manglish belonging to various ethnic groups tend to pepper their speech with the words from their mother tongue which is the example of code-switching
Manglish particles Lah – used in the end of the sentence to affirm a statement which often ends with an exclamation mark Don’t be an idiot lah! Mah – less intensive than lah She’s like that mah Liao - means ‘ already’ No more liao! Meh – used in questions, often skeptical Really meh Lor - used when explaining smth Like that lor! One - used as an emphasis in the end of the sentence Why is she so naughty one? What - unlike AE & BrE is used with an exclamation mark What! How could you do that?
Manglish Vocabulary Kapster – a talkative person Blur – confused Jalan – to walk Kena – to get caught Makan – to eat Minum – to drink On/ off - to activate/ deactivate Pon – to skip school Saman – to issue a traffic ticket
HP (handphone) - mobile/ cell phone KIV – keep in view - keep for further consideration Outstation - out of town/ overseas MC – He is on MC today (medical certificate) - sick note
Can - yes/ alright Cannot - no Photostat - photocopy, Xerox Different meanings Driver - a personal chauffeur/ odd job man, often sent on errand Alphabet – a letter of alphabet (The word ‘vase’ has four alphabets. Exclamations in Manglish Best/ syok – indicates that the object is superlatively good, Die/ finish/ gone – to indicate trouble like English ‘damn it’
Many things were borrowed from Chinese dialects: Why are you so like that one? = Why are you behaving in that way? (BrE)
Philippine English English functions in Manila since 1762 when the British invaded the country, but got rooted in 1898 when the USA took the government. Americans set up education system with English as the language of education. After independence the Philippines government followed the same line with parallel usage of Filipino. In private schools arranged by Catholic Church dual system is valid and English prevails. American spelling prevails. Educated people prefer American pronunciation. Mispronunciation lead /i/ as in leader salmon / l/ is pronounced climber / b/ is pronounced Wrong syllables are stressed: Comfortable - /komFORtabl/ Preferable /preFERabl/ Admirable /adMYrabl/ Category /kaTEGori/ Ceremony /seREmoni/
Short /u/ turns into long /u/: Frustration / froostr../ Suspend /soospend/ T, k, p are pronounced without aspiration Vocabulary and usage C.R. – Comfort Room = toilet, bathroom Get/ go down the bus – get off the bus Open/ close the light – Switch on/off the Every now and then - often
Japlish/ Janglish/ Engrish Japlish/ Janglish are typically considered more derogatory and referred to any East Asian language. Engrish is a pejorative term used to describe attempts of Japanese writers to create English words and phrases, or mistranslation of an original Japanese text, exotic embellishment of the text in ads. Engrish is applied to East Asian languages as they do not separate L and R sounds.
Engrish refers to Japanese pronunciation of English loan words. Engrish occurs commonly in electronics produce manuals. Engrish is used in Japanese pop culture as English is considered to be extremely fashionable. Humorous English mistakes which appear in Japanese advertising and product design Engrish can be found in other countries but the funniest examples come from Japan Some of the English-based Japanese coinages can be used as Japanese originated English. Actually, walkman, karaoke, play station, case-by-case, or forward-looking have already been received internationally, while nighter (bargain), washlet, hot carpet, or paper driver may have a good chance of adoption if appropriately introduced. Nihonglish Badly pronounced and ungrammatical Japanese produced by a native English speaker. Usage is intentional either with sarcastic or humorous intent. NB! Japanese bites back! Variants of English/ Australian English l Divergence of Australian English from BrE can be dated back to 1788 when the first penal colony for British convicts was set up. They spoke mostly Cockney. In 1827 when the speech of Australian residents was described, strong Cockney impact was noticed. l During Australian gold rushes in the 1850s Australian English borrowed increasingly from external sources. l Americanization of Australian English occurred during massive influx of American troops during WWII and increased later in the 1950s due to television, movies and mass media. Australian English has a lot in common with New Zealand English, however the difference is obvious to a speaker from either country. n There is Australian Corpus of English n British spelling prevails, correlation of British and American spelling in 3:1 (-ise VS ize)
n There is some influence of Hiberno- English as many people are of Irish descent. Irish impact is seen in the use of me instead of my: What’s me hat? n Some words in Australian English are unique like bush – remote, sparsely-populated areas. n Some elements from Aboriginal languages (places, flora, fauna) were incorporated like kangaroo. Pork products are known in South Australia as fritz In Victoria as stras In New South Wales as devon, In Western Australia as polony In Queensland as windsor In Tasmania as belgium Stereotypically Australians have a rising tone/ questioning intonation known as high rising terminal. There are lots of regional patterns
Sociolinguistic approach in Australian English studies: n Broad Australian English n General Australian English n Cultivated Australian English
Cultivated Australian English (CAE) is similar to RP. 3 -10 % population speak CAE. Common among public figures.People speaking CAE are ridiculed as aloof, snobby, affected. General Australian English - stereotype of Australian English, the language of movies & TV. Broad Australian English is a recognizable variety due to accent, known for long diphthongs and nasal drawl.
Indian English British English and Scottish English are taught, the latter influenced Indian English with rhoticity and thrilled -r-. RP is encouraged and promoted Indian English has established itself as an audible distinct dialect with specific phrases Obsolete forms of English, antiquated phrases which were fashionable 50 years ago Indian English is an object of jokes due to ruined Grammar BrE is popular with older generations, AmE – with younger, there are debates about variant to be adopted: 70% BBC English, 10% General American English, 17% Indian English AmE grows popular due to TV, pop-culture, visits to the USA AmE gradually dominates within academic, technical publications, mass media /v/ < > /W/ Impact of Bengali, Hindi, Tamil → Benglish, Hindish, Tanglish Progressive tense in stative verbs: I’m understanding, He is knowing the answer Variation in number: he likes to pull your legs Prepositions – to pay your attention on, discuss about Tag questions: isn’t it? / no? in general questions; He’s here, no? Word order: They’re late always. My all friends are waiting. Yes, I didn’t. Past tense form: I had gone = I went But & only as intensifiers: I was just joking but. Open/ close = turn on/off Overuse of words actually, basically, obviously in the beginning of the sentence Overuse of the word different – different: We had gone to different different places. Omission of the article: Let’s to ______city Your good name please? = what’s your name? Deadly = intensive (That movie is deadly) Hi-fi = stylish (Your shoes are hi-fi) Sexy = excellent & extremely cool (That’s a sexy car) Hello! What do you want? = in telephone conversations Back = ago: I met him 5 years back Mr/ Mrs as common nouns: My Mrs is not feeling well Uncle/ aunt to refer to someone significantly older Repair = of a broken object: The TV became repair Healthy = to refer to fat people Dress - to refer to any clothes for men/ women/ children Bath and bathe are interchangeable Interjections High-end-= of very high quality (sarcastically of work and people) Oof! = distress& frustration arey! Acchha! = to express range of emotions
Words from India in English Jungle, bungalow, banana, pajamas, guru, shampoo
Canadian English Close to AmE Commonwealth spelling Pronunciation is closer to AmE Many words known as americanisms are also found in Canada
Major dialects are Newfounland, Eastern Canadian, Quebec, Central / Western, Ottawa Valley Twang
American English Northern is not to be confused with political North during the Civil war, historically it is New England Southern – coastal areas of Waryland, Virginia, Georgia, Gulf States Midland – area extending through all the country Sing/ Plural coordination BrE The team is …/AmE The team are
2. Past Simple in AmE with words already, just, yet
3. Get –passive is more common in AmE Subjunctive mood is more common in AmE BrE He suggested they should apply… AmE He suggested they_____ apply..
5. Irregular verbs in AmE form past tense forms as regular verbs (learned, leaped, spelled) Usage of prepositions: AmE to meet with someone Monday to Friday, AmE Moday thru Friday In Churchill Street, AmE on Churchill Street BrE toward s, backward s AmE toward__ AmE divided highway BrE dual carriageway
Among the countless American coinages are these: radio, disc jockey, waterfront, right away, get along with, fall for, make the grade, get around to, babysitter, boyfriend and girlfriend, knowhow, in the red, hitchhike, show business, merger, publicity, executive, hindsight, commuter etc.
biscuit cookie queue line flat apartment fancy-dress party costume party Pensioner retiree lorry truck football soccer trousers pants crisps potato chips
British American windscreen windshield bonnet hood wing fender quarterlight wing boot trunk indicator turn signal hazard lights flashers running lights parking lights Tyre tire
Cambridge International Corpus (CIC)
African American English l A reference to varieties of English used in the United States (referred to in Canada as African Canadian English) by people who are wholly or partially of African descent. This accounts for over 10 per cent of the population, the figures depend on the definitions of African American: the United States Census Bureau gave the total population ‘Black or African American alone or in combination’ in 2010 as 13.5 per cent or some 42million; l ‘Black or African American alone’ was given as 12.6 per cent or 39 million. The majority of African Americans are the descendants of slaves taken by the British from West Africa to America to work on the plantations of the South. Initially, the transportation was via the Caribbean, then directly to the south-east coast of the later United States. Although there was a concentration of African Americans in the rural South, the migration to the large cities of the inland north in the early twentieth century (Anderson 2008 [5.1.10]) meant that Urban African American varieties developed outside the South. Because these were severed from the historical core area they have frequently undergone developments not shared with the original varieties in the South. Varieties of African American English embody a large number of non-standard features on all levels of language. Some of these are almost conventional stereotypes and their frequency varies greatly – some are indeed quite rare. l There is also a range of sub-varieties, for example with young/urban/hip hop contrasting with rural/traditional, and they have characteristics of their own. Furthermore, most of these features are not distinctive and are shared with many other non-standard varieties. Pronunciation l (1) Consonant clusters in non-initial position are reduced to a single segment: test [tes], desk [des] looked [luk], talked [tɔːk]. l (2) Non-prevocalic /r/ is absent: car [kaː], party [paːti]. l (3) Frequent deletion of final /l/, particularly before labials or wordfinally with auxiliaries: help [håp], he’ll be home [hi bi hoːm]. l (4) Stopping of initial /р/ to either [d̪] (dental stop) or [d] (alveolar stop): this [d̪ɪs], there [d̪åː]. l (5) In word-final position /θ/ is frequently shifted to [f] (also found in cockney English); this shift is also found for /р/ (→ [v]) in word-internal position: bath [baːf], teeth [tiːf] brother [brʌvə]. l (6) Velar nasals are realized as alveolars: She’s comin’ tomorrow. l (7) The distinction between short /å/ and /ɪ/ is frequently lost before nasals (also in southern white American English). The neutralization is to the raised vowel [ɪ]: pen, pin [pɪn]; ten, tin [tɪn]. l (8) Glide reduction with /ai/, a feature typical of the Upper South, is also found in African American English before voiced segments: five [faːv], time [taːm]. l (9) Initial stress is often found with words with non-initial stress in other varieties, e.g. ˈ police, ˈ define. Grammar, general l 1) Negative concord (the agreement of all polarity items with each l other within a clause) serves the purpose of intensifying a negation, for example I ain’t givin’ nothin’ to nobody. l (2) Existential there is replaced by it: It ain’t no football pitch at school. l (3) Plurals are not marked if preceded by numerals. He here for three year now. l (4) The genitive is not necessarily marked with /s/ (as position is sufficient to indicate this category) I drove my brother car. l (5) A formal distinction is frequently made between second person singular and plural: you [juː] (singular) and y’all [jɒːl], derived from you + all (plural); this is also a general southern feature. Grammar, syntax (1) Third person singular - s is variably omitted. She like my brother. (2) The copula is deleted in equative sentences, that is those of the form X = Y. She a teacher. They workers in the factory. (5) Bare subject relative clauses occur, for example He the man (who) got all the cars. (6) Double modals are found occasionally within the same verb phrase (as elsewhere in the South, e.g. in Appalachian English): He might could do the work. She may can do the work. This is probably an inherited feature from Scots-derived dialects originally brought to the United States in the eighteenth century which then diffused into the language of the African-American population. Vocabulary l Some items are clearly of West African origin, such as buckra ‘white man’, tote ‘to carry’, goober ‘peanut’, yam ‘sweet potato’ (note: the origin of jazz is unknown). l Semantic extensions of existing English words are: homies ‘close friends; prisoner inmates’, bloods ‘other blacks’, whities ‘white people’, bad ‘good, admirable’, cool ‘good, neat’, hip ‘knowledgeable’, dude ‘male’ (often disparaging).
Chicano English A reference to vernacular varieties of English spoken by Spanish immigrants in the south-west of the United States. Most of these are from Mexico (‘Chicano’ apparently derives from this name). There is a long association of the south-west of the present-day United States with Mexico. People from Central American countries have also been among these immigrants so that, at around 40 million, Spanish-speaking or Spanish-descent Americans constitute the major ethnic population of today’s United States. Chicano English covers a range of varieties and applies to both L1 and L2 speakers of English. In its most basilectal form it shows considerable influence from (Central American) Spanish l Vocabulary Apart from actual Spanish words used in English because of code-switching Chicano English speakers may use words related in sound but different in meaning, so-called ‘false friends’, for example molest to mean ‘disturb’ based on Spanish molestar with this meaning. Other instances are extensions of English meanings, for example barely to mean ‘just recently’ as in She barely rang her mother.
References 1. English Language in Europe. Ed. By Reinhard Hartman, 1996 2. Intercultural Communication. Adrian Halliday, Martin Hyde, John Kullman.- Routledge, 2004 3. An Encyclopaedia of Language. Ed. by N.E.Collinge. Routledge, 1990 4. World Englishes. The Study of New Linguistic Varieties.-Cambridge Univ.2008 5. In and Out of English: For Better, For Worse?- Mutilingual Matters, 2005 6. The Handbook of World Englishes.- Blackwell Publishing, 2006 7. World English. A Study of Its Development.- Janina Brutt-Griffler, Multilingual Matters, 2002 8. History of English // YouTube/ Parts 1-8 9. Моїсеєнко О.Ю. Концептуальна інтеграція англійської мови в лінгвокулттурний контекст Східної Африки. Дис....д.філол.н. К. 2015 World Englishes The 20th century will still be the century of the men who speak English Theodore Roosevelt English is no longer the possession of the British, or even the British and the Americans, but... exists in an increasingly large number of different varieties... But the most important development of all is seen in the emergence of varieties that are identified with and are specific to particular countries from among the former British colonies. In West Africa, in the West Indies, and in Pakistan and India... it is no longer accepted by the majority that the English of England, with RP as its accent, are the only possible models of English to be set before the young. (pp. 293) Randolph Quirk 1962
I myself came from the Inner Circle of Englishes, the OVEs (Old Variety of Englishes) as they are called in South-East Asia; so I would like to start by reminding you that within this circle there are and always have been many different Englishes around. I’m not talking about the relatively recent worldwide varieties – British, North American, South African, Oceanic; but about the old dialects within Britain itself, Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex, and Kentish at one period in the language’s history.
M.A.K. Halliday
Many historians and sociologists ask a question how it happened that in 1600 England – second-rate country, in the 19th c. the British Empire dominated in the world. The well-known phrase The Sun never sets in the British Empire was transformed into The Sun never sets in the empire of the English language. To put things metaphorically, whereas once Britannia ruled the waves, now it is English which rules them.
l language spread -- a process during which the uses and/or users of a language increase, often under conditions of political expansionism, prestige or technological influence. Quirk’s (1988) analysis is considerably more complex, dividing the spread of English into three separate varieties – imperial, demographic and econocultural.
English as a GLOBAL language In Mass Media there are numerous facts about English spread worldwide, for example: n 400mln English mother tongue speakers n 350 mln English as a second language n 100 mln use it fluently as a foreign language n 2/3 world scientists write in English n ¾ world mail in English n 80% electronic information n In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5%
English speakers in line with NationMaster l USA 280,000,000 l India 100,000,000 l UK 55,000,000 l Canada 17,000,000 l Australia 15,682,000 l South Africa 3,500,000 l New Zealand 3,312,000 The USA 2007 – 5 years and older l 267,444,149 - 95,19% l 225,505,963 - Mother tongue l 41,938,196 - additional language - do not speak English at home but know it ‘very well’ or ‘well’ l Great Britain (David Crystal) 2003 - 97,74% 1,500,000 - additional language l Canada 85,91% 7,551,390 - additional language l Australia (2001) – 97,03% l New Zealand – 97,82% l Ireland – 96,3%
2/3 world scientists write in English ¾ world mail in English 80% electronic information In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5% World companies adopt English as a working language: In Germany 98% specialists in Physics and 93% in Chemistry communicate in English
n Besides economic and political factors, vogue for English computers & electronic produce made their contribution→ communicative shift (Lotman) or semiotic revolution (Kabakchi): Computers (IT) + English
Semiotic revolution has changed the nature of communication making it n Electronically/ digitally-based, computer-mediated, in virtual world with focus on audio and video In Europe: $ 600 mln for translation papers into the languages of member-states 47% residents of EU claim English as their second foreign language n Language policy in different countries aimed at protection their mother-tongue, for example, in 1992 Academy of France published the Dictionary of French with 6000 borrowings from other languages despite all criticism of purists. Among the words forbidden to use are: baby-sitter, boss, camping, cheeseburger, cocktail, copyright, drugstore, fast-food, know-how, marketing, parking, pickpocketing, sandwich, self-made man, sponsor, supermarket etc. n One of the reasons English words squeeze out French equivalents is that English ones are much shorter: French VS English
Téléscopie fax Courriel e-mail Imprimante printer
n Latin America complains about English invasion, about exposure to English but 57% young Spanish-speaking people claim their native language is Spanish but give preference to English in numerous situations,
Some sociolinguists claim that English becomes endangered in the USA as the Chinese increased 98%, Vietnamese 150%, Korean by 127% during the last decade, the number of native English speaking population (WASP) in the USA decreases as a result of graying and browning of America. After President Obama’s inauguration the newspapers published photos with caption “ Will America paint the White House Black?”
English VS other languages n World localized n Link confining n Window closed n Neutral biased
Criticism of English n Negative impact of English was first noticed in British colonies, in India, Ghandi, national leader, stated it brings alienation, intoxication, denationalization and mental slavery, later on other terms were coined internationally: Linguistic imperialism, linguicism, anglocentricity, glottopolitics
n English & Ideology: Some politicians state that British Council was set up as an institution to promote English, that English invasion was masterminded.
l In China teachers of English initiated the slogan which has become global “ Think global, teach local! Mind the gap! “
l American English also contributed to English invasion: in 1986 the Economist assembled a list of English words that have become more or less universal: airport, hotel, passport, telephone, bar, soda, cigarette, sport, golf, tennis, stop, O.K.,weekend, jeans, know-how, sex, no problem
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