Science for the Twenty-First Century

By Paul Hoyningen-Huene, Marcel Weber, Eric Oberheim

The second half of the 20th century has witnessed a great number of scientific discoveries and technological innovations which have had, and continue to have, the greatest impact on humanity and are frequently closely interconnected. The origins of the universe, the evolution of life on Earth, the structure and function of bio-molecules and

many natural phenomena, ranging from the subatomic to the cosmic scale, are far better understood today than they were 50 years ago.

At the same time, the progress that scientists have made has provided unforeseen power, which enables us to change our lives, our world, as well as our future. On the other hand, this power can also have negative consequences. It is a factor that has contributed to the damage to the Earth's natural environments and it has been used to construct weapons of mass destruction - reminding us that with power comes the responsibility to use it wisely.

At the dawn of the 21st century, science finds itself in a challenging situation. Today, there are more professionally trained scientists than in all previous generations combined together. At the same time humankind's most pressing challenges such as food supply, public health, global climate change, or the protection of biodiversity seem to escalate. So, there is a need in combined scientists’

efforts. The globalization of markets, production, and

finances may lead to a shift

from national research and development priorities

towards a world-wide

network of research activities.

Apart from large-scale research programmes which require international co-operation, scientific research which provides little or no

 

short-term economic profit may be called into question.

The twentieth century saw more momentous change than any previous century: change for better, change for

worse; change that either

brought enormous benefits to

human beings or threatens the very existence of the human species. Many factors contributed to this change but the key factor was the progress in science.

Nevertheless, in the next 50 years science will continue to surprise us both with what it discovers and creates.

 

(“Science for the Twenty-First Century: A New Commitment”)

 

1. Work in groups of three. Each student reads one of the texts (A, B or C) and completes the table.

 

field of science
achievements
practical application (comments)

 

Text A

Mathematics differs from the other sciences in that its subject is not nature. Progress in mathematics is usually not directly realized by the public since its results are so abstract and often isolated from every-day experience that they are difficult to understand. However, occasionally some mathematical news becomes visible to a broader public. One example is the application of large prime numbers for encryption purposes. Sometimes a result in pure mathematics also catches public attention like the recent proof of Fermat’s last theorem, which resisted the best efforts of mathematicians for more than three and a half centuries. But mathematics is more than just peculiar theorems and occasional popular achievements. Because of its precision and accuracy, it is an essential tool for all of the sciences. There are many examples from the history of science in which the development of new mathematical methods allowed scientists to formulate fundamentally new theories and to achieve revolutionary conceptual breakthroughs. One of the most spectacular cases in this century was Einstein's use of the non-Euclidian geometry developed by Riemann in the 19th century to formulate the general theory of relativity. The last part of the 20th century has seen spectacular advances in mathematics, especially in the theory of dynamical systems and in stochastic analysis*. A combination of analytical and geometrical ideas has been characteristic of these developments. One example is the use of diffusion-reaction equations* to understand biological pattern formation*. Another example is the advances in our understanding of turbulence, in particular in the context of weather forecasting. At mid-century, mathematics was examining its own foundations. Today we see a different trend, which is strongly influenced by recent advances in computing technology. Mathematical modelling, the development of algorithms, and scientific computing have become powerful tools for all the sciences. They promise to play a crucial role in future progress.

 

stochastic analysis* - вероятностный анализ

diffusion-reaction equations* - уравнение реакции диффузии

biological pattern formation* - формирование биологического рисунка

 

 

Text B

The chemical sciences have made breath-taking advances during the last five decades. They have provided innumerable benefits through an extremely wide range of applications. These include not only new materials, food additives, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides, but also new analytical tools for the study of living matter as well as the environment. The structures of many molecules were determined and this has provided the basis for their synthesis and production on an industrial scale. Notable examples are vitamins, which complement many biochemical reactions in the human body, and antibiotics, which have saved many lives. In addition to characterising and synthesising a vast number of natural products, chemists have also designed absolutely new compounds. Major progress was also made in the synthesis of tailor-made polymers*, composite materials, and ceramics which is capable of superconduction. Organic chemistry was instrumental to the great advances in understanding the structure and function of biomolecules. This has had an enormous impact on the bio-medical sciences. For instance, in 1954, the first naturally occurring protein hormone was analysed and then synthesised. For the first time, it was shown that an artificially produced protein has exactly the same properties as those naturally produced. The synthesis of insulin, a life-saving protein for diabetics, followed shortly thereafter. In 1959, the three-dimensional structure of haemoglobin (the oxygen-transporting molecule that makes blood red) was determined at atomic resolution*. Since then, the structures of thousands of biologically important molecules have been described. This knowledge plays a vital role in the development of new diagnostics and therapeutics. Aided by fast computers, medicinal chemists increasingly use the knowledge of bio-molecular structures to design small compounds with very specific pharmacological properties and make significant contributions both to our understanding of life processes and to medicine. The chemical sciences are also contributing to the environmental sciences. For example, they provide new materials and contribute to the development of new means to crop protection, as well as animal and human health.

 

tailor-made polymers* - полимеры с заданными свойствами

at atomic resolution* - на уровне атомов

 

Text C

Over the last fifty years, our own solar system and its origins have become much better known. Many new satellites and rings around planets have been discovered and the nature of comets has been disclosed. One of the main reasons for this development was the beginning of the space age. All of these innovations were made possible by new observation instruments. Fifty years ago, the largest telescope was a 5-metre optical telescope, whereas modern telescopes are four times larger and more powerful. Furthermore, in 1990, the Hubble space telescope was sent into orbit. It has provided a lot of new information about our universe, as the radiation it collects does not have to pass through the Earth's atmosphere. From the early 1960s on, communication satellites were sent into orbit, making wireless communication possible all around the world. Landings on the Moon and the planets by probes of ever-increasing sophistication started in the mid-1960s and continue today. Some of them have brought back samples making an in-depth chemical analysis of their composition possible. In 1969, the first man set foot on the moon, only twelve years after the first satellite was launched. Another example is the development of weather satellites, which have become indispensable for tracking hurricanes and other violent storms. While these storms are still potentially dangerous, timely warning of their approach has saved many lives and helped to avoid vast property damage. Another example is the Earth resource satellites, which have become an integral part of geological data collection and provide us with a better means of assessing the Earth's resources. In addition, these satellites supply information about forest growth and crop diseases*.

 

crop diseases* - заболевания сельскохозяйственных культур

(Adapted from “Science for the Twenty-First Century: A New Commitment”, by Paul Hoyningen-Huene, Marcel Weber, and Eric Oberheim)

 

2. Now exchange information with other students in your group to list all the achievements mentioned in texts A, B and C.

 

Comprehension check

1. Look back in the text and find 9 adjectives that are similar in meaning to the word important. Check in the dictionary the difference in their meanings.

 

Focus on language

1. Read the sentences and determine relationships between the parts in each sentence.

§ Innumerable benefits include not only new materials, food additives, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides, but also new analytical tools for the

study of living matter.

§ The scientists have made the progress that has provided unforeseen power, which enables us to change our lives, our world as well as our future.

§ Because of its precision, mathematics is an essential tool for all of the sciences.

 

Showing relationships between ideas   To connect words and phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence we use conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs. § conjunctions* e.g.: The twentieth century saw much momentous change that either brought enormous benefits to human beings, or threatens the very existence of the human species.   Both … and … when connects two subjects require plural verb Not only … but also … Either … or … Neither … nor … when connects two subjects, the latter determines whether the verb is singular or plural     * The samegrammatical form should follow each word of the pair. Neither … nor …is already negative in meaning so doesn’t require negative form of a verb   § prepositions e.g.: Apart from large-scale research programmes, scientific research with little short- term economic profit may be called into question.   Because of … Due to …*     are followed by an object noun show cause and effect Apart from … Except for … In addition to … show contrast continue the same idea   Due to … in formal writing is followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that   § adverbs e.g.: The chemical sciences developed new analytical tools for the study of living matter as well as the environment. As well as is usually followed by an object noun indicates addition

 

2. Change the following sentences using an appropriate conjunction, preposition or adverb. Translate the sentences into your native language.

a) Big cities suffer from air pollution. They also suffer from the shortage of fresh drinking water.

b) Nowadays biochemistry doesn’t provide an answer to the fundamental question of the generation of life on earth. Modern biology doesn’t answer this question either.

c) The research project will be funded from one of the sources: local or national.

d) The research project took a lot of time and much money.

e) The cost and size of computing power has been reduced. The design and implementation of the Internet allows access to information from all over the globe at an unprecedented level and speed.

f) Discovery and study of quasars, black holes and pulsars were made possible by new observation instruments.

g) The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is increasing because the vast amount of fossil fuels is burnt every day.

 

Listening

1. Listen about achievements made in other fields of science during the 20^th century. Complete the table. Check as a class.

field of science	_______________	____________	Earth Sciences
achievements	new particles; experimental demonstration of the existence of antimatter; ___________________		____________________ _____________________ analysis of sedimentary records and ice cores from Greenland;
practical application	________________ ____________________ high resolution microscope; scanning tunneling microscope; _______________ ________________ mass storage devices for computers (CD_ROM), surgical instruments; _______________ _______________	___________________ ___________________ Therapeutic and diagnostic pharmaceutical products; ___________________ ___________________	______________ ______________ ______________

 

Writing

Summarize into a paragraph the information that you have learnt in the unit on the greatest scientific advances in the 20^th century. Follow the guidelines.

Study help: Summary writing A summary is restating someone else's words - the main information or argument of another writer in your words. ü Read the original passage or text very carefully. ü Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the main point of the original text, or make notes in the margins or on another sheet of paper. ü Form sentences with the help of your keywords. These sentences should reflect the main content of the text. ü Connect the sentences using suitable conjunctions. The first sentence should describe the main content of the text.

§ Identify the key points of the report

and the supporting details the authors

use to illustrate them.

§ Summarize the key points and the

supporting details in your own words.

§ Arrange your information in a logical

order. Make use of the appropriate linking words you have learnt in the unit.

§ Make sure you stated the authors’ names, the title of the report and the source it comes from in your first sentences.

§ Express your opinion on the information presented in the report.

Functional language
The text
The report	was presented at …
	reports on …
The text	deals with …
The report	describes …
	informs on/about …
The author
	great
	particular	interest
I find the information of	general	value	because …
	little	significance
	no

 

Get real

Search the Internet sites and popular science magazines to find information on the latest advances made in your field of science in the first decade of the 21^st century. Report your findings to the class.

 

Reading

1. Look at the pictures. What kind of invention do they describe?

 

 

2. Match the words in A with the definitions in B and then with the pictures. Translate the words into your native language.

 

A	B
1) parchment	a) a special kind of paper that is made of conductive plastic containing tiny balls that respond to an electric charge
2) paper	b) ancient writing material from stems of aquatic plant used in ancient Egypt for writing and drawing on
3) e-paper	c) material made from the skin of a sheep or goat, used in the past for writing manuscripts on
4) papyrus	d) a small plate for writing on it made of clay
5) clay tablet	e) material that you write and draw on and that is also used for wrapping and packing things

 

3. Study the timeline describing the evolution of paper and papermaking. Use time and sequence expressions in the Functional language box to tell the history of papermaking.

As old as writing

Study help: Time lines The time line provides a study tool that allows you to organize information that is presented chronologically. Time lines would be effective to use in classes in which you present historical, biological and other developments. To make the order clear and to show the sequence of events, we mention dates and time, and we also use various links and connectives.

Written communication has been the centre of civilization for centuries. However, putting thoughts down in a written form wasn’t always easy or practical. Paper has a long history, beginning with the ancient Egyptians and continuing to the present day. It has largely survived the test of time but now it is facing a new challenge from its electronic equivalent. A particularly fruitful way to look at the evolution of paper is to study how it has changed over time.

 

3500 BC	Sumerians use cuneiform alphabet, pressed in clay with a triangular stylus. Clay tablets were dried and/or fired for longevity. Some even had clay envelopes,' which were also inscribed.
3000 BC	Egyptians created Papyrus, a material made from thinly cut strips from the stem of Cyprus Papyrus plant.
2400 BC	Date of the earliest surviving papyrus scroll with writing.
200 BC	Both Greeks and Romans used wax tablets, framed and backed with wood, for note taking, orders, correspondence, and other temporary communication.
197-159 BC	In the Middle East, near Pergamum, large herds of cattle are raised for skins to be made into what we now call 'parchment.' It was the most popular material for manuscripts until the 12^th century.
105 AD	Papermaking was invented in China by Ts'ai Louen. Material used: plant bark, discarded cotton and old fishnets.
300-700	Secret of papermaking crept out from China to Vietnam, Nepal, Korea and Japan.
	First papermaking mill was established in Spain
1300C.	Papermaking reached Southern Italy, where, until quite recently, some of the oldest handmade paper mills in Italy were operating in the Naples area.
	Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press.
1700 C.	Tremendous increase in papermaking led to a serious shortage of raw materials.
	Saxon Keller invented a groundwood pulp.
	Mellier Watt patented a chemical pulp.
Late 18-th	Nicholas Luis Robert created a machine that could produce a seamless length of paper. Paper production became industrialized with the advent of steam-driven paper making machines.
1950s	New material and fillers were used, new processed chemicals and dyers were developed.

(Adapted and abridged from the Internet sites www.papiermuseum.ch

http://www.wipapercouncil.org/invention.htm http://www.hqpapermaker.com/paper-history/)

cuneiform - an ancient system of writing used in Persia and Assyria

bark – a hard covering of a plant

paper mill - a small machine for crushing or grinding a solid substance into powder

pulp - a soft substance that is made by crushing wood, cloth or other material

dyers - substances that are used to change the colour of things

 

Functional language: Time and sequence Time In 1942,... In the year … During the 20th century,... A decade ago... Sequence Before …/Before this, … For the previous … years, … Prior to this, … Previously, … … years previously, … Later on … For the following … years, … … years later, … Soon/Shortly/Immediately afterwards, … … after which …   When/As soon as/After … During this period, … Throughout this period, …

 

Discuss

Ø What other devices/tools have changed/transformations over the centuries?

Ø What do you think such changes were caused by?

Ø What improvements did they lead to?

 

 

Get real

Search the Internet and/or any popular science magazines to find information on the transformations of any device or tool in your field of science. Create a timeline to demonstrate its evolution.

 

 

Writing

Study help: Narrating and reporting Past tense is common. Chronological order is also common, but when we are writing about past events, it is necessary to be explicit about the order in which things happened.

 

Write a paragraph of about 100-150 words describing its evolution. Give reasons for your choice of the device/tool.

Make use of the timeline help box and Functional language box.

 

 

In the Realm of Science

1. Read the abbreviations and think of their equivalents in your native language. Use a dictionary if necessary.

AI

VR

IT

GM

GPS

HDTV

HTML

DNA

R&D

2. Here are some of the widely-used terms in science you should know.

Bot	a computer program that performs a particular task again and again many times; shortened from robot
Breed	to make animals or plants produce young ones in a controlled way, in order to develop new and better types.
Cellular	connected with or consisting of the cells (often used in reference to a telephone system that works by radio instead of wires)
Cyber	a prefix for things related to computers, especially the internet (e.g. cybercafe - a place where you can buy drinks and use computers at the same time)
Gene therapy	a type of medical treatment that changes someone’s genes to help them get rid of a disease or cure a medical condition.
Genetic engineering	when scientists change the genes of a person, plant or animal in order to make it stronger, healthier, bigger, more attractive, etc.
Genome -	the complete set of genes in a cell or living thing
Gizmo	a general word for a small piece of equipment, often one that does sth in a new and clever way
Hi-definition	a system which provides very high quality images in more detail than ordinary images
Nanotech	short for nanotechnology - an area of science that deals with creating extremely small tools and machines
Side effect	an extra, usually bad, occurrence caused by taking a drug. It is also used in non-medical English in a more neutral way.
Sci-fi	science-fiction
Teleconferencing	a way of having meeting between people who are in different places, using video cameras and computer systems that are connected to each other.
Wi-Fi	short for wireless fidelity - a system for sending data over computer networks using radio waves instead of wires
Wireless	a system of sending and receiving signals (not using wires)

 

Unit 1. Progress Monitoring In this unit you have worked on the following vocabulary related to the topic “Latest Achievements and Future Developments in Science and Technology”. challenging situation   to be instrumental   technological innovations   to supply smb with sth   to witness sth   a key/vital factor/role   origins of smth   to search for ways   evolution of smth   crucial/critical   to make progress   to be indispensible for   momentous change   main/major reasons   to provide the basis for   to survive the test of time   to become visible   to face sth (chalenges)     Tick (V) the points you are confident about and cross (X) the ones you need to revise.