Pharmacy: science, technology, industry

PHARMACY: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, INDUSTRY

Pharmacy is defined as the art and science of recognizing, identifying, collecting, selecting, preparing, storing, testing, compounding and dispensing all substances used in preventive or in curative medicine for treating people. It speaks not only of medicines and the art of compounding and dispensing them, but of their combination, analysis and standardization.

Though nowadays most drugs are prepared by pharmaceutical manufactures and are distributed to the chemist's or hospital in such suitable dosage forms as tablets, capsules, liquid preparations, or sterile solutions for injection, the pharmacist now has no less a responsible role in properly dispensing the preparation in finished forms than when he powdered, dissolved, mixed, and otherwise compounded prescriptions. Compounding and dispensing medicines demand special knowledge, experience, and high professional standards. So to become a pharmacist one should achieve knowledge of different subjects, such as physics, chemistry, biology, pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacognosy, technology of drugs, organization and economy of pharmacy, management and marketing in pharmacy.

When supplying both prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) medication to patients, the pharmacist also provides information required for the safe and effective use of such drugs. The pharmacist further serves as an information source of all aspects of drugs to his colleagues in the medical, dental, and nursing professions.

These advisory roles are made possible by the vast background of the pharmacist, the drug expert, in fields such as pharmacognosy, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and pharmaceutics. The pharmacist needs to know where the dosage form can be obtained; if the drug is readily absorbed; if it has stability; and if there is anything in the literature to confirm the reliability of this dosage form for a particular patient. The pharmacist must also know what tablets can be crushed and added to food (or used in compounding) without altering the drug's effectiveness and dose regimen. Pharmacists should be very helpful and supportive when asked for their opinion and advice.

It is widely recognized that pharmacists are among the most accessible and respected health professionals.

 

 

Answer the questions: 1. How is pharmacy defined? 2. What is the role of a pharmacist? 3. What do compounding and dispensing medicines demand? 4. What is necessary to become a pharmacist? 5. What is pharmacist able to predict? 6. What information does the pharmacist provide when supplying both prescription and over-the-counter drugs? 7. What does the pharmacist further serve? 8. By means of what are these advisory roles made possible? 9. Can you give the examples of substances used both pharmaceutically and in food production? 10. What do you know about the history of pharmacy?

 

Complete the sentences: 1.Pharmacy is defined as the art and science of... 2.Nowdays most drugs are distributed to the chemist’s or hospital in such suitable dosage forms as.... 3. Compounding and dispensing medicines demand... 4.Pharmacist should be very helpful and supportive when...

 

Choose the Ukrainian equivalents to the following: preventive medicine; curative medicine; dosage form; responsible role; sterile solution; professional standards; drug constituents; productive activity

 

Continue the sentences:

1. Pharmacy is defined as

a) the science; b) the art; c) the art and science of preparing, compounding and dispensing drugs.

2. Compounding and dispensing drugs demand

a) special knowledge; b) special prescriptions; c) special place.

3. Pharmacist should be very

a) handsome and kind; b) helpful and supportive; c) rude and impatient.

 

 

FROM THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY

Pharmacy, which literally means knowledge of drugs pharmaceuticals, has been a part of the healing arts since mankind first began to treat illnesses. It has developed from ancient civilizations that used parts of plants and animals to concoct various potions to eliminate pain, control suffering, and counteract disease. It has risen from the mysterious incantations of voodoo tribes and has survived the unwritten secret recipes of medicine men.

A number of the drugs used by the ancients are still employed in much the same manner by today's medical practitioners. By trial and error, primitive man must have acquired biologic knowledge that was useful in determining which plants and animals possessed good value and which were to be avoided because they were unpalatable, poisonous, or dangerous. The healing powers of certain herbs, roots, and juices were undoubtedly discovered by accident; but once these attributes were learned, they were too important to be forgotten.

Dioscorides, a Greek physician who lived in the first century A. D., wrote his "De Materia Medica" in 78 A. D., in which he described about 600 plants that were known to have medicinal properties. Of these, a surprisingly large number are still important in modern medicine. Aloe, belladonna, colchicum, ergot, hyoscyamus, and opium are a few that were used then in much the same manner as they are used today.

Galen (131—200 A. D.) was a Greek pharmacist-physician who lived in Rome and who described the method of preparation formulas containing plant and animal drugs. He devoted considerable time to compiling this knowledge, which was distributed throughout 20 books. As a tribute to his accuracy in recording his observations the term "galenical" pharmacy was originated.

From the humble beginning, medicine and pharmacy gradually emerged along separate paths: the physician diagnosed the ailment and prescribed the remedy and the apothecary or pharmacist specialized in the collection preparation, and compounding of the substance.

Pharmacy, as an independent branch of medicine was born in Europe in 1240 when the Emperor of Holy Rome separated pharmacy from medicine. However, there was no special pharmaceutical training at that time. Till late 17th and even 18th century, the universities taught their students ” De Materia Medica”.

WATER

About three quarters of the earth’s surface is covered with liquid water. In vapor form, water is also an important constituent (складова) of the earth’s atmosphere. In combined form, water also occurs abundantly in minerals such as in gypsum. In addition, water occurs in animals and vegetable tissues. It constitutes some 70 per cent of the human body and over 90 per cent of some vegetables.

Naturally occurring waters frequently contain dissolved mineral substances. Thus we have mineral waters in which the total mineral content is significantly above the average, alkaline (лужні) waters which contain unusual quantities of sodium, calcium, or potassium bicarbonate; carbonated waters which contain carbon dioxide dissolved under conditions of excessive pressure, either natural or artificial; sulfur (сірчані) waters containing large amounts of hydrogen sulfide readily detectable by odor, and siliceous (кремнієві) waters containing unusual quantities of silica in soluble form.

Potable water is water which is fit to drink. Since water dissolves a part of nearly everything with which it comes in contact, absolutely pure water does not occur in nature. The water for drinking and domestic purposes is generally supplied by rivers, lakes, wells, and springs. But good drinking water must be free from toxic salts, disease producing organisms, and from harmful organic and sewage contamination. Not all cities and towns process (обробляють) their water supplies the same way. Some do nothing to their water. Others add chemicals to the water to kill bacteria. Still others filter their water. It is up to the individual to find out how local drinking water is treated and to determine how safe the water coming out of the tap is. Tap water can be improved in several ways. Heating tap water to a rolling boil and keeping it there for three to five minutes will kill bacteria and parasites.

Filtration is a means by which contaminants in water are removed. There are three basic types of filters available: absorbent types, which use materials such as carbon to pick up impurities (домішки); microfiltration systems, which run water through filters with tiny pores to catch and eliminate contaminants (the filter may be made of any of a number of different materials); and special media like ion-exchange resins (смоли) that are designed to remove heavy metals. Water filtration systems vary in effectiveness. Two types that are considered good are reverse osmosis and ceramic filtration systems. However, no filter can remove absolutely all contaminants.

When the electric charge of a molecule of water has been neutralized by the addition or removal of electrons, the resulting water is called deionized or demineralized. The deionization process removes nitrates and the minerals calcium and magnesium, in addition to the heavy metals cadmium, barium, lead, and some forms of radium.

To be considered mineral water, in addition to containing minerals, the water must flow from the ground, and must be bottled directly at the source. Depending on where the source is, the minerals contained will vary. If you are suffering from a deficiency of certain minerals and are drinking mineral water for therapeutic reasons, you must be aware of which minerals are in the particular brand of water you drink. If you are drinking mineral water containing minerals that you do not lack, you could be doing yourself more harm than good.

 

I. Underline productive suffixes in the following words and translate them: abundant, commonly, natural, particular, fatty, frequently, watery, significant, silvery, lengthy

II. Put questions to the sentences below: 1. We use water for drinking and domestic purposes. 2. Water contains dissolved mineral substances. 3. Water occurs in animal and vegetable tissues. 4. Water constitutes an important part of the earth’s atmosphere. 5. Man uses water for countless purposes.

III. Combine the given two sentences into one using conjunctions that, which, who: 1. Phosphate is an important major constituent of raw materials. The determination of phosphate is also of particular interest. 2. We watched the reaction. It was taking place in a test-tube. 3. D. I. Mendeleyev was a great scientist. He arranged elements according to a definite system. 4. Water for washing contains some substances. The substances react with soap.

IV. Translate the equivalents of the following expressions from the text: важлива складова земної атмосфери; розчинені мінеральні речовини; загальний вміст мінералів; незвичні кількості натрію; за умов високого тиску; питна вода; придатна для пиття; що не містить хвороботворних організмів.

V. Translate the following sentences: 1. Вода зустрічається в природі у вигляді рідкої води та пари. 2. Три чверті земної поверхні вкриті рідкою водою. 3. Рослини і тварини вміщують велику кількість води. 4. Вода становить близько 70% ваги людського тіла. 5. Воду для пиття зазвичай забирають з річок, озер, криниць та джерел.

 

 

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are compounds containing the elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the last two elements being usually present in the proportion in which they are found in water. The group includes sugars of different degrees of complexity and polysaccharides such as starch, inulin and cellulose.

Sugars which contain from three to nine carbon atoms form monosaccharides, those with five and six carbon atoms (pentoses and hexoses) being the most important. Polysaccharides are derived from sugar molecules by condensation with the elimination of water. Sugars are readily ( швидко, добре ) soluble in water and in general can be induced by crystallize only with difficulty and after careful purification. They have a sweet taste. Of the polysaccharides insulin is soluble in warm water but the more complex cellulose is insoluble.

All carbohydrates give a violet colour when treated with alphanaphthol followed by concentrated sulphuric acid. Some carbohydrates are reducing (відновлювані). Non-reducing carbohydrates such as sucrose and the polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed by boiling for about half an hour or more with a little dilute acid. After neutralizing them with an excess of caustic soda, it will be found that reducing sugars have been produced.

Carbohydrates are divided into two groups – simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates, sometimes called simple sugars, include fructose (fruit sugar), sucrose (table sugar), and lactose (milk sugar), as well as several other sugars. Fruits are one of the richest natural sources of simple carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates are also made up of sugars, but the sugar molecules are strung together to form longer, more complex chains. Complex carbohydrates include fiber and starches (крохмаль). Complex carbohydrates are found in vegetables, whole grains, peas, and beans.

Carbohydrates are the main source of blood glucose, which is a major fuel for all of the body’s cells and the only source of energy for the brain and red blood cells.

Although most fiber is not digested, it delivers several important health benefits. First, fiber retains water, resulting in softer and bulkier stools that prevent constipation and hemorrhoids. A high-fiber diet also reduces the risk of colon cancer. In addition, fiber binds with certain substances that would normally result in the production of cholesterol, and eliminates (видаляє) these substances from the body. In this way, a high-fiber diet helps lower blood cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of heart disease.

Create nouns from the given adjectives using the suffix –ity:

Complex (складний) — > complexity (складність)

soluble (розчинний) -

responsible (відповідальний) -

change­able (мінливий) -

possible (можливий) -

acid (кислий) -

Translate the sentences. Underline the words having prefixes with negative meaning:

1. The more complex cellulose is insoluble. 2. Non-reducing carbo­hydrates can be hydrolyzed by boiling for about half an hour with a little dilute soda. 3. Many mercury compounds sublime unchanged when heated in a dry tube. 4. Impure substances usually soften first and require a range of temperature to cover the period between softening and complete melting. 5. Antibiotics can be produced from organic and inorganic substances. 6. The common fatty acids in fixed oils, fats and waxes in combination with glycerol or other alcohol may be saturated or unsaturated.

Choose the correct verb form given in brackets: 1. Today the laboratory (produced, has produced) more complex carbohydrates. 2. They (solved, have solved) that problem two years ago. 3. He just (completed, has completed) his investigation. 4. At present production of synthesized carbohydrates (developed, has developed) into a new industry. 5. She (hasn't worked, did not work) at this problem since she left the Institute. 6. The method (develop, was developed) at that Institute.

PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Proteins are highly complex compounds elaborated by living cells, and containing the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulphur.

The molecular weights of proteins are known to be estimated only approximately (приблизно). Those proteins which are soluble form colloidal solutions which are generally viscous and may form gels if sufficiently con­centrated (e. g. gelatin). From their colloidal solutions many pro­teins are precipitated by electrolytes. Many of them (e. g. egg albu­men) are coagulated by heat. When the temperature is above 80 °C it produces a marked change in protein structure. This is an example of "denaturation", with diminution (зменшення) in solubility and other changes in properties, which may be brought about (проявлятися) in proteins by various means, including the action of reagents. Proteins can be hydrolyzed with formation of simpler substances. Protein is essential for growth and development. It provides the body with energy, and is needed for the manufacture of hormones, antibodies, enzymes, and tissues. This process takes place, for example, during digestion in the stom­ach and intestinal tract. It also helps maintain the proper acid-alkali (кислотно-лужний) balance in the body.

When protein is consumed, the body breaks it down into amino acids, the building blocks of all proteins. Some of amino acids are designated ( визначаються ) nonessential (замінні). This does not mean that they are unnecessary, but rather that they do not have to come from the diet because they can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids. Other amino acids are considered essential (незамінні), meaning that the body cannot synthesize them, and therefore must obtain from the diet. A protein builds muscle.

Complete proteins are found in meat, fish, poultry, cheese, eggs, and milk. Incomplete proteins, which constitute the second group, contain only some of the essential amino acids. These proteins are found in a variety of foods, including grains, legumes, and leafy green vegetables.

Form the verbs from the following nouns using conversion where possible:

e. g.: water - to water

complex, study, change, form, matter, effect, difference, combi­nation, drop, compound, powder, test, arm, exercise, light, analyst, experiment, variety, use, crystalline, increase

Replace the infinitives in brackets by one of the Perfect Tenses:

1. We (to isolate) more than 20 amino-acids from protein hydrolysates. 2. He (to work) much at the problem of obtaining proteins. 3. The reverse process (to take place) after the amino-acid molecules linked together in chains. 4. The progressive decrease in the molec­ular complex (to stop) by the end of the reaction. 5. Complete hydro­lysis of proteins (to change) their properties. 6. Substances of such complexity (to crystallize) under ordinary conditions. 7. When the temperature (to rise) above 60—80 °C it produced a marked change in protein structure.

Translate the sentences containing Complex Subject:

1. Proteins are known to be highly complex compounds elaborat­ed by living cells. 2. Most of the chemicals proved to be salts. 3. Proteins are considered to be particularly important as the source of combined nitrogen in foodstuffs. 4. You are likely to know that the molecular weights of proteins can be estimated only approximately.

Answer the questions: 1.What properties does the process of denaturation influence?Is protein needed for the manufacture of hormones, antibodies, enzymes and tissues?What do the terms “essential” and non-essential” mean?

 

FATS

Although much attention has been focused on the need to reduce dietary fat, the body does need fat. During infancy and childhood, fat is necessary for normal brain development. Throughout life, it is essential to provide energy and support growth. Fat is, in fact, the most concentrated source of energy available to the body. However, after about two years of age, the body requires only small amounts of fat. Excessive fat intake is a major causative factor in obesity, high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, and colon cancer, and has been linked to a number of other disorders as well. To understand how fat intake is related to these health problems, it is necessary to understand the different types of fats available and the ways in which these fats act within the body.

Fats are composed of building blocks called fatty acids. There are three major categories of fatty acids – saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated. These classifications are based on the number of hydrogen atoms in the chemical structure of a given molecule of fatty acid.

Saturated fatty acids are found primarily in animal products, including dairy items, such as whole milk, cream, and cheese, and fatty meats like beef, veal, lamb, pork, and ham. The fat marbling you can see in beef and pork is composed of saturated fat. Some vegetable products – including coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and vegetable shortening (кулінарний жир) – are also high in saturates. The liver uses saturated fats to manufacture cholesterol.

Most experts recommend that the daily intake of saturated fats be kept below 10 percent of total caloric intake. However, for people who have severe problems with high blood cholesterol, even that level may be too high.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in corn, soybean and sunflower oil, certain fish oils. Unlike the saturated fats, polyunsaturates may actually lower your blood cholesterol level. An individual’s intake of polyunsaturated fats should not exceed 10 percent of total caloric intake.

Monounsaturated fatty acids are found mostly in vegetable and nut oils. The intake of monounsaturated fats should be kept between 10 and 15 percent of total caloric intake.

One other element, trans-fatty acids, may also play a role in blood cholesterol levels. Also called trans fats, these substances occur when polyunsaturated oils are altered through hydrogenation, a process used to harden liquid vegetable oils into solid foods like margarine and shortening. If your goal is to lower cholesterol, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats are more desirable than saturated fats or products with trans-fatty acids. Just as important, your total calories from fat should not constitute more than 20 to 25 percent of daily calories.

 

 

HERBS IN HUMAN HISTORY

 

Botanically, a herb is any plant whose stems die down completely in winter. In common usage, the term is applied to aromatic plants whose leaves, stems, flowers or seeds have culinary or medicinal uses.

Records show that herbs were in use in ancient Greece; they were valued as flavourings ( приправа ) and for their fragrance ( аромат ), and they also formed the basis of medical treatment. Hippocrates, the Greek physician (c. 460 BC), listed several hundred herbal remedies whose use persisted for many centuries.

Herbs were introduced into Britain by the Romans, who adopted many of the Greek customs. They, too, valued the reputedly supernatural powers of the plants, as well as their culinary and medicinal uses. The wreath of bay laurel (лавровий вінок) worn by victors of wars, games and contests is well known. In Britain, too, herbs became a focus of superstition (забобон), reaching their peak of importance in the Middle Ages when every village had its witch (чаклун, знахар), and every witch her herbs and potions (зілля). Herbs were also used to counteract the witches' powers; garlic (часник), hyssop (гісоп) and wormwood (полин) all combated witchcraft and evil spirits.

The medicinal qualities of herbs were even more important. In 1597, John Gerard, the London herbalist and apothecary, published his Herbal, a volume containing 1000 pages with woodcut illustrations of 3000 plants. Herbal remedies continued to be the main preoccupation of physicians until the 18th century, and even today, certain drugs are still obtained from natural sources. The pain-killing drug morphine is derived from poppies (мак); digitalin, a heart stimulant, is extracted from foxgloves (наперстянка); and colchicine, used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions, is obtained from the autumn crocus (Colchicum).

The culinary use of herbs reached its climax during the 16th century. This was the age of the Elizabethan herb garden; a well-stocked garden would have up to 60 different herbs, for use in medicinal drinks, for scents and for cooking. These gardens were laid out in decorative, often intricate, patterns interspersed with low-growing hedges of lavender, rosemary or box.

During the 19th century the cultivation and use of herbs began to decline. At the beginning of the 20th century, the herbs commonly used had been reduced to four: mint (м’ята), parsley ( петрушка ), sage and thyme (чебрець). However, with the rising popularity of highly flavoured dishes, attention is once more focused on the herb garden.

Define the word herb.

HARVESTING AND DRYING

The time of harvesting depends on the purpose for which the herbs are grown. Plants cultivated for their leaves and stems should be harvested in the young stage, before flowering, while herbs grown for their flowers should be picked when in full bloom. Herbs chiefly grown for their seeds are gathered in late summer when the seeds ripen and turn yellow or brown.

Choose a dry, still day for harvesting and gather the herbs after morning dew has vanished, but before the sun becomes hot. Handle the leafy shoots (паростки) carefully to avoid bruising and subsequent loss of aroma, and remove entirely any damaged and discoloured leaves. Large leaves may be stripped from the stems, but small-leaved herbs are better dried whole. If the leaves are gritty (з піском) and dirty, wash them gently in cool water.

If the herbs are wanted for drying, place them on flat containers such as cardboard (картонні) boxes or trays covered with cheesecloth, keeping one kind of herb well apart from another to avoid the mingling (змішування) of aromas. Place the con­tainers in a dry, warm and airy place. An airing cupboard or the warming drawer of a cooker is suitable provided (якщо) there is adequate ventilation.

Turn the herbs once a day, handling them carefully. Most herbs are ready for storing after four or five days or when they are brittle (ламкі) to the touch. Before storing the herbs, check that they are perfectly dry by keeping them in clear glass containers for a week. If moisture (волога) gathers on the inside of the jars, spread out the herbs on trays and leave them to dry for a few more days.

When dry, the leaves should be stripped from the stems, although small-leaved herbs, such as hyssop and thyme, keep their aroma better if stored whole and then crumbled before use. Discard all chaff (відходи) and pack the leaves or sprigs (пагони) into airtight containers. It is best to use opaque (непрозорі, темні) containers; if clear glass jars are used, keep them out of direct light. Seal and label the containers.

Alternatively, small-leaved herbs may be tied in small bunches and hung upside down in a cool airy place to dry. When brittle, strip the leaves from the stems and store in airtight, opaque containers.

Herbs with tender leaves, such as chervil and parsley, are generally unsuitable for drying, but can be preserved by freezing.

Cut the flower spikes of lavender just before they open fully; tie in small bundles and hang upside down in a cool airy place. When completely dry, strip the flowers off the stems and store in airtight containers.

Herbs such as caraway (кмин) and dill (кріп), which are chiefly grown for their seeds, are dried for storage in the same way as leaves. Pick the stems in late summer or early autumn when the seeds are ripe and yellow-brown. Place them on shallow trays, or tie them with their stems in small bunches. Leave to dry for about a week, turning occa­sionally. When dry, remove the seeds and store in the same way as for dried leaves.

Answer the questions to the text:

1. What does the time of harvesting depend on?

2. Should we choose a dry, still day or a rainy one for harvesting?

3. Why should we handle the leafy shoots carefully?

4. What should we do if the leaves are gritty and dirty?

5. How often should we turn the herbs?

6. What herbs are unsuitable for drying?

 

IDENTIFICATION OF HERBS

Identity of entire herbs is determined by their external appearance. In cut and threshed material whole flowers and fruits are chosen and their shape and characteristics are examined using a lens. Leaves, when required, and powders, as a rule, are examined microscopically.

Description. Determined in dry herbs is the colour, odour at trituration (тертя), character of leaf venation and pubescence (пушок) of various parts of the plant. The structure of the fruits is examined with the naked eye, or through a magnifying glass; the length of the stem and the size of flowers or flower heads are measured. After rapid steeping (просочування, занурювання) of the herb in hot water it is flattened out on a glass plate to determine the leaf arrangement.

Powder. Elements of the stem, flowers, seeds and fruits occur in the powder of herbs. Features characteristic of stem parts are larger vessels, fibers and epidermis (peel) cells with straight, lateral walls. As a rule powders contain an insignificant amount of fruit and seed elements.

The material is stored in dry, well-ventilated premises, in a place protected from light; in drugstores — in boxes provided with lids, some hygroscopic herbs — in tins or jars with tight-fitting lids, when necessary — sealed with paraffin.

I. Ttranslate the words with the same root without a dictionary:

Herbage, herbal, herbalist, herbarium, herbivorous, to herborize

II. Name the common structural element of the following nouns:

mixture, moisture, manufacture, fracture, structure, admixture

III. Put question to the italicized words:

I. The structure of the fruits is examined with the naked eye. 2. The material is stored in dry well-ventilated premises, in a place protected from light. 3. Herbs are collected mostly during the period of full flowering. 4. Herbs are not gathered entirely as thick lower stems are often rejected. 5. Similar enzymic activity was found in a variety of plant material. 6. The plant is made up of four principal parts.

IV. Answer the questions:

1. What parts of herbs are examined microscopically? 2. What are stem parts characterized by? 3. What elements do powders contain? 4. What is determined in herbs? 5. Where is the raw material of herbs stored?

 

DRUG EXTRACTION

The principle modes of extraction employed in pharmacy at present are follows: maceration, percolation, digestion, infusion and decoction. Of these percolation is the most important and useful.

Maceration and digestion, which is merely a modified form of maceration, are old processes. The process of maceration consists simply of extraction by soaking the drug or substance in the menstruum (розчинник) until the cellular structure is thoroughly penetrated and the soluble portion softened and dissolved. The usual method is to introduce the drug into a bottle with the solvent, stopper it tightly, and agitate (струшувати) it occasionally for a period ranging from 2 to 14 days, then to pour off the liquid, express (вичавити) the residue to avoid loss, and filter the mixed liquids. The drugs macerated in definite quantities of menstruum, which consists of alcohol of various strengths, ether and alcohol, or other specified solvent.

Percolation, or lixiviation, is the extraction process in which a granulated or powdered drug is deprived of its constituents by the descent of a suitable solvent through it.

The physical forces playing an important part in percolation are gravitation, viscosity, adhesion, friction, osmosis, capillarity, ice tension, and solution.

The instrument used to hold the powder is called a percolator, the liquid poured on top of the powder, the menstruum; the liquid

coming from the percolator, the percolate; and the residual drug remaining in the percolator after the extraction of the soluble constituents, is called the mare.

In order to understand thoroughly the process of percolation as applied to powdered drugs, it must be remembered that the soluble principles of vegetable substances are in hard and dry condition, and are generally contained in cells which are more or less disintegrated by the process of grinding. If the soluble principles could lie separated from the insoluble cellular substance and be deposited in the ground particles, percolation would be rapid.

But the powdering of the drug only partially separated the soluble principles from the insoluble and the finest dust of the powdered always contains a larger proportion of the soluble principles than of the insoluble substance. Hence the first proportion of the percolate is usually the most dense, the most highly coloured, and contains the largest proportion of the soluble principles.

 

SOLUTIONS

Any chemically and physically homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is said to be a solution. It is possible to have solutions of solids in liquids, liquids in liquids, gases in liquids, solids in solids, etc.

Depending upon the size of the dispersed particles we recognize true solutions, colloidal solutions, and suspensions.

If sugar is dissolved in water, it is supposed that the ultimate (кінцева, елементарна) sugar particle is of molecular dimensions (розміри) and that a true solution is formed. On the other hand if very fine sand is mixed with water, a suspension of comparatively large particles, each consisting of many molecules is obtained. Between these two extremes lie colloidal solutions.

From the pharmaceutical stand-point solutions of solids in liquids are of the greatest importance and many quantitative data are available on the properties of such solutions.

When an excess of a solid is brought into contact with a liquid, molecules of the former (першого) are removed from its surface until equilibrium (рівновага) is established between the molecules leaving the solid and those returning to it. The resulting solution is said to be saturated at the temperature of the experiment.

The extent of solubility of different substances varies from almost imperceptible (невідчутний) amounts to relatively large quantities but for any given solute the solubility has a constant value at constant temperature.

Under certain conditions it is possible to prepare a solution containing a larger amount of solute than is necessary to form a saturated solution.

 

PREPARATION OF TABLETS

The tablet is the most common form of medication for the administering of a drug in a dry state. From a purely physical point of view, the technique of tablet making (tabletting) may be defined as a process whereby a known volume of a drug in a finely divided (подрібнений) state is subjected to pressure in a die (форма) between two punches (штампувальний прес).

A tablet shows definite properties of mechanical strength and is also characterized by a definite rate of disintegration when brought into contact with water.

It is generally observed that tablets can be made easily from certain drugs, such as sodium chloride and other alkali haloids, even without the addition of auxiliary substances. For some other drugs such as lactose, the addition of auxiliary (допоміжний) substances is found to be necessary to overcome certain difficulties in their tabletting, because of persistent binding or sticking in the tablet machine.

The application of different pressure during tabletting plays a very important role. The correct pressure must be applied in order to avoid unnecessary complications. Tablets which should dissolve in the mouth must be more strongly compressed than other average tablets for internal administration.

Lubricants (змащувальна речовина) and glidants (змащувальна речовина) are added to the tablet materials to improve their flow properties. They are generally powdery substances which deform only slightly when subjected to the compressing pressures. To glidants belong such substances as natural starch (крохмаль), which has excellent flow improvement properties.

Lubricants are substances which facilitate smooth ejection of the compressed tablets.

 

I. Translate the words of Latin origin with verb-forming suffixes:

filtrate, acidify, granulate, fermentate, cultivate, concentrate, inactivate, characterize, vaporize, specify, oxidize, gasify, utilize, neutralize, sterilize

OINTMENTS

Ointments are semi-solid preparations for external application оf such consistency that they may be readily applied to the body оr to mucous membranes. They should be of such composition that they soften but not nесеssarily melt when applied to the body.

The ointment base usually constitutes the major portion of the pharmaceutical preparation and, therefore, may influence the effiсасу (ефективність) of the incorporated (змішаний, включений до складу) medicinal substances.

Based on their penetration ointments have been divided into three classes. Epidermic ointments are those which demonstrate no, or very slight, power of penetration into the skin. In this group have been placed the bases which contain petrolatum (вазелін), waxes (віск) and their combinations.

Endodermic ointments are those which possess some power of penetration into the deeper layers of the skin. Most of them have a somewhat lower melting point, approaching the temperature of the skin, and contain vegetable oils, lard, wool fat, lanolin, and/or combinations of these.

Diadermic ointments are those which penetrate the skin, thus offering a better opportunity for absorption of the medicament. Ointments of emulsion type and the water-soluble bases belong to the group of absorption base.

Hydrocarbon bases include ointments prepared from pеtrolatum, or liquid petrolatum, with wax or other stiffening agents (згущувачі).

White and yellow ointments are relatively stable to normal climatic temperature changes. Absorption bases generally have a high index of compatibility toward the majority of medicaments used topically. These bases have found a definite place in pharmacy as well as cosmetology.

Until recently, ointments and ointment type products were packaged in glass, stoneware, porcelain, polyethylene, or plastic wide-mouth jars. Since a large area of the ointment was exposed to the effects of air, those ointments containing easily oxidized mеdicines were packaged in metal tubes. The use of aerosol containers preventing contamination, drying out of the product as well as protecting water sensitive drugs is preferable.

 

I. Make nouns from the following adjectives using suffix –ity: active; capable; pure; intensive; quantitative; relative; susceptible; compatible

II. Change the following verbs into Participles I and II:

to penetrate, to constitute, to demonstrate, to prepare, to change, to expose, to perform, to distribute, to add, to stir.

III. Insert the words from the text into the sentences: vegetable, divided, petrolatum, absorption, penetration, temperature, wool.

1. Ointments of emulsion type belong to the group of... base. 2. The substance obtained is stable to normal climatic... changes. 3. Based on their penetration ointments have been... into three classes. 4. Epidermic ointments possess very slight power of... into the skin. 5. Most of endodermic ointments contain... oils,... fats, lanolin, and/or combinations of these. 6. Ointments belonging to the group of hydrocarbon bases are prepared from... with wax or other stiffening agents

IV. Choose the sentences with improper statements. Give the right definition:

. 1. Ointments are semi-liquid preparations for external application. 2. Based on their penetration ointments have been divided into four classes. 3. Hydrocarbon bases do not include ointments prepared from petrolatum with wax. 4. Absorption bases generally have a low index of compatibility towards the majority of medicaments. 5. White and yellow ointments are not stable to normal climatic temperature changes. 6. Endodermic ointments are those which do not possess the power of penetration into the deeper layers of the skin.

V. Answer the questions:

1. What are the sites of application of ointments?

2. What is the difference between the three classes of ointments?

3. How are most ointments packaged now? Why?

 

FILLING OF AMPOULES

The ampoules are first washed with ordinary water and then with pyrogen-free distilled water. They are sterilized in sterilizers provided with two doors at opposite ends. One leads into the non-sterile area for charging the sterilizers with washed, non-sterile ampoules, and the other leads into the sterile area for removing the ampoules after sterilization. After cooling the trays are conveyed to the automatic filling machines (заповнювачі). Filling is carried out in a small air-conditioned room under a hood, provided with ultra violet lamps. All parts of the filling machine which come in contact with the substance to be packed are daily dismantled, cleaned, and sterilized.

For parenteral use the dry sodium salt of penicillin is dispensed in ampoules usually in amounts of 100,000 or 200,000 units which are prepared in one of two ways.

1) A concentrated aqueous solution of sodium penicillin is dried in bulk (усе разом) from the frozen state. The dry material is reduced to a fine powder which is subjected to the usual routine tests (potency, toxicity, pyrogen content, sterility, moisture content). The desired amount is then measured into the ampoules by hand or automatic machines. After filling, the ampoules are closed with sterilized rubber caps or stoppers and then removed from the sterile area for receiving metal covers, labeling and final packing.

2) The concentrated solution of penicillin is put into the ampoules in the desired amounts, generally by using an automatic filling machine which discharges measured (1—2 ml) amounts, frozen in them and evaporated to dryness in the frozen state.

The method of drying the aqueous solution of penicillin salts in the final containers is practised more commonly in the large penicillin plants than the method of weighing the bulk of dried salts into each individual ampoule, but the latter, though more laborious (працевмісткий) and time-consuming, has given equally good results with regard to sterility and keeping power.

I. Read and translate the adjectives with the suffixes -ic and -y:

phenolic, electronic, economic, atomic, mercuric, icy, watery, windy, earthy, airy, showy, dirty, oily, sugary

ІІ. Translate the words with the same root:

Prepare, preparation; associate, association, associated, sterility, sterilize, sterilization, sterilized, sterilizer; complete, completion, completely; measure, measurable, measurement, measureless

III. Translate into English:

1. Сухий матеріал подрібнюється. 2. Дрібний порошок піддається звичайним випробуванням. 3. Після наповнення ампули закриваються стерильними гумовими кришками. 4. Концентрований розчин пеніциліну розливається в ампули за допомогою автоматичного заповнювача. 5. Звичайна вода використовується для першого промивання ампул. 6. Наповнення ампул здійснюється в спеціальних приміщеннях.

XI. Answer the questions:

In what amounts is the dry sodium salt of penicillin dispersed in ampoules? 2. What state is the dry material reduced to? 3. By what means is the desired amount of fine powder measured intо ampoules? 4. What process usually takes place after filling the ampoules? 5. How many methods of dispensing the dry sodium salt of penicillin in ampoules are used in practice? 6. Which method is more commonly practiced in the large penicillin plants? 7. Can any water be used for washing ampoules? 8. What can you say about the structure of sterilizers?

 

TINCTURES

Tinctures are defined as alcoholic or hydro alcoholic solutions prepared from animal or vegetable drugs or from chemical substances. Tinctures differ from spirits in being made usually from nonvolatile (нелеткі) bodies; the tinctures containing volatile (леткі) constituents extracted from drugs and those containing iodine are exceptions to the rule.

Tinctures are made by percolation, maceration, solution, or dilution and the menstrua employed in the official tinctures are alcoholic, dilute alcohols of various strengths, aromatic ammonia spirit, ammonia water, or mixtures of alcohol, water, and glycerin. Wines, such as Sherry, have also been used as menstrua, the resulting preparations being referred to as Vini or Wines.

The use of alcohol as a solvent for the active or useful principle in drugs has been practiced for many years, but it has required a long time and much experience to determine the proper proportion of water to be added. The menstrua should dissolve the therapeutically valuable constituents of the drugs without extracting the inert, principles, and yet contain sufficient alcohol to secure permanent preparations that will not in time deposit a portion of their active constituents.

The proportion of drug represented in the different tinctures is not uniform but varies according to the established standards for each. Tinctures of potent drugs essentially represent the activity of 10 gm of the drug in each 100 ml of tincture. Most other tinctures represent 20 gm of the respective (відповідних) drug in each 100 ml of tincture. Compound tinctures are made according to long established formulas.

Tinctures are unsuitable for extended dilution with aqueous solutions or liquid of very low alcohol content. Although a very small amount of such a liquid can be added to a tincture without marked precipitation, further addition causes a separation of a part of the extractive matter from the tincture. Considerable precipitation occurs when a tincture is added to a comparatively large volume of a vehicle of low alcohol content.

There are three different methods represented in the processes for making tinctures: percolation, maceration, and solution or dilution. Percolation is the best method for making tinctures, when the drugs are capable of being readily extracted. Maceration is used in the case of resins, balsams, gums, soap, etc.

A few tinctures are made by means of solution or dilution, such as iodine tincture, by dissolving iodine in a solution of potassium iodine and adding alcohol; ferric chloride tincture, by diluting the ferric chloride solution with alcohol, etc.

Tinctures should be stored in tight, light-resistant containers protected from exposure to direct sun light and excessive heat.

 

 

 

Sources of Drugs

Drugs of medical value are obtained from mineral, animal and plant sources. An increasing number of organic drugs are obtained by synthesis in the chemical laboratory.

Mineral drugs. The earliest medicine men used crude (необроблені, сирі) natural minerals as a source of many of his medicines. These natural minerals have been used throughout the centuries and are still used today in purified form. Iron oxide obtained by the exposure of iron to the elements was used by the ancient Greek physician in the treatment of anemia. Today, iron in purified form constitutes specific therapy for treatment of certain types of anemia. Many other minerals are employed in the treatment of disease, such as iodine, copper, manganese, and cobalt.

Animal drugs. The organs of animals have been used since the earliest records of medicine in the treatment of disease. Originally this treatment was entirely empirical. Today, it represents one of the greatest achievements of modern medicine. Extracts or whole organs are employed therapeutically in replacement therapy in patient showing a failure of that organ..

Desiccated thyroid gland is used in treatment of hypothyroidism; insulin extracted from the pancreas, in treatment of diabetes mellitus; extracts of the posterior pituitary, in treatment of diabetes insipidus, and a purified extract of the anterior pituitary (ACTH) can be used to stimulate production of hormones by the adrenal cortex. Recent advancements in biochemistry have made possible the isolation and preparation of therapeutic agents of animal origin in relatively pure form so that they may be used for therapeutic purposes in alleviating disease.

Synthetic drugs. Currently the most fruitful source of drugs is the organic chemistry laboratory. Many drugs formerly available only from animal or plant tissues have recently been produced in the chemical laboratory in a more pure state. The use of pure drugs is the ultimate objective of the pharmacologist. In recent years cooperative studies by the pharmacologist and the organic chemist have been particularly successful in producing therapeutic agents for the prevention, treatment, and alleviation (полегшення) of disease. An outstanding example is the sulfonamides. These drugs were produced exclusively in a chemical laboratory and had found wide use in the control of disease. Many other drugs including the organic arsenicals, antimonials, antihistamines, and synthetic hormones have come from the chemical laboratory to the aid of the pharmacologist and medical scientists in general.

Vegetable drugs. Many of the vegetable drugs employed in the past have been succeeded by newer synthetic agents of greater potency and lesser toxicity. Despite the extensive development of drug synthesis in the chemical laboratory, medicine is still dependent upon nature for many important drugs.

The roots, leaves, and barks of plants were principal sources of drugs used by primitive man in the treatment of disease. However, the majority of vegetable drugs used centuries ago are no longer employed. A few vegetable drugs, such as digitalis, belladonna, and opium, have no satisfactory substitutes. A wide variety of substances of plant origin are employed in medicine with less specific effects.

DRUG NAMES

Drugs can have four names - a generic name (родова назва) (which any drug manufacturer may use); an official name; a trade, private, or brand name, and a chemical name.

The generic name is the common name by which a medication is known. The name can be used by any manufacturer.

The official name is the name of the medication as it appears in the official reference. Generally, it is the same as the generic name.

The trade, private, or brand name indicates ownership by a manufacturer and usually bears a superscript ® or ™ to the right of the name. The ® indicates registry with the Patent and Trademark Office, and ™ indicates a trademark but no federal registration.

The chemical name indicates the chemical content of the medication. The chemical name is not commonly used in a doctor's practice.

The following is an example of one drug's brand, chemical, and generic names: Sinemet, (-)-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-L-alanine, levodopa

Sometimes a number is a part of the trade name. The purpose of this number is to differentiate it from a product that is almost identical. The number often refers to the amount of one of the components of the medication (e.g., 650 mg), but may simply indicate a difference in delivery medium or dosage level. The referenced component of the medication may also be a controlled substance. As a rule, the higher the number, the more there is present of a given substance.

A physician may order medications using either the trade or generic name. A list of commonly prescribed medications and their generic names follows.

TRADE NAME GENERIC NAME

Benadryl diphenhydramine hydrochloride

Dulcolax bisacodyl

Pavabid papaverine hydrochloride

Robaxin methocarbamol

Tylenol acetaminophen

Valium diazepam

 

In addition to the terms identified above, medications may be referred to as OTS drugs, legend drugs, or controlled substance. OTS is an abbreviation for over-the-counter drugs, which do not require a prescription. Examples are Aspirin and certain ointments. Legend drugs are prescription drugs. They are not safe for over-the-counter purchase because if they are taken without doctor’s guidance, they may cause harmful side effects. Examples are antibiotics and birth control pills. Controlled substances are medications that may become addictive if taken without supervision, such as codeine and morphine.

 

DRUG-RELATED WORDS

Below are drug-related words that have particular meanings for pharmacist and other allied health specialists. After reviewing them, complete the dictionary exercises.

allergy	adverse response to a foreign chemical resulting from a previous exposure to that substance
amphetamine	stimulant for the central nervous system
analgesic	drug that relieves pain
Anaphylactic reaction	possibly fatal allergic response
antagonism	interaction created when drugs won't work together
anesthetic	drug agent that reduces or eliminates sensation
anthelmintics	drugs that destroy worms
antibiotic	drug that slows down or stops the growth of bacteria, fungi, or parasites
anticoagulant	drug that prevents clotting or coagulation of blood
anticonvulsant	drug that prevents or reduces the severity of convulsions
antidepressant	drug that elevates moods and treats symptoms of depression
antidiabetic	drug that treats Type I and Type II diabetes mellitus
antihistamine	drug that blocks the action of histamine, a substance that causes allergic reactions
barbiturate	drug to sedate a person
cardiovascular	drug that acts to increase the efficiency of the heart and blood vessels
dependence	situation where removal or withholding of a drug may produce adverse psychological and/or physical symptoms
diuretic	drug that increases volume of urine excreted
emetic	drug that induces vomiting
endocrine drug	drug that simulates naturally occurring hormones such as androgens, estrogens, progestin, thyroid, etc.
gastrointestinal drug	drug, such as an antacid, antiulcer, antidiarrheal antinauseant or laxative, used to relieve uncomfortable or dangerous gastrointestinal feeling
hypersensitivity	immune response (allergy to a drug)
idiosyncrasy	unusual response to a drug that is peculiar to the individual
isotonic	pertaining to solutions that have the same osmotic pressure
lipid	family of compounds soluble in organic solvents but not in waterм
narcotic	drug having both an analgesic and a sedative action
placebo	substance that resembles a medication but does not contain the drug
placebo effect	heightened physical response to a drug because of the positive feeling the patient has about the drug
resistance	decrease in the response to a drug by the causative factor (e.g., bacteria)
sedative	drug that relaxes an individual by depressing the central nervous system
stimulant	drug that speeds up vital processes such as heart and respiration
synergism	combining of two or more drugs that work together to produce a greater effect than either produces separately

 

 

EFFECTS OF MEDICATIONS

Effects of medications are categorized as being either systemic or local. Any substance that has the ability to be absorbed and distributed throughout the body has a systemic effect. However, when the effect is limited to the area of the body where it is administered, it has a local effect.

Once (щойно) the chemical substance is in the body, it is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and finally, excreted. Absorption is the process of getting a chemical substance into the bloodstream. This process is affected by the medication's degree of acidity and lipid (fat) solubility, as well as whether there is food in the stomach. That is why some prescriptions are labeled "Give before meals" or "Take with food."

The specific composition of the chemical substance will determine its distribution - that is, the process of moving from the bloodstream into the tissues and fluids of the body. Some chemical substances are attracted to specific organs or cells, while others may or may not be able to cross a lipid membrane.

The chemical substance undergoes physical and chemical alterations in the body (metabolism). Chemical substances are transformed in the liver to more water-soluble by-products (побічний продукт) that can be easily excreted by the kidneys. Some drugs may be eliminated through perspiration, feces, bile, or breast milk, as well as through the kidneys.

Excretion is the process of eliminating substances such as the waste products of drug metabolism from the body. If not excreted properly, some chemicals may have a cumulative effect that can cause toxicity - a poisonous and potentially dangerous situation for the patient. These toxic levels must be monitored carefully when certain medications are prescribed. Toxic and other unintended effects that may occur with some medications are called side effects. For individual patients, the use of a particular chemical substance may have harmful effects. Contraindications are the specific factors that the physician considers in selecting medications for an individual patient.

Other factors that affect the way medications work include age, weight, gender, psychological state, interactions of medications and food with one another, dosage, drug resistance or tolerance, genetic factors, allergies, and method of administration.

Vitamins are not commonly regarded as drugs, but are natural or synthetic substances that have a positive or negative effect on the body. Water-soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C) must be replaced on a regular basis. On the other hand, vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins whose effects are cumulative. Therefore, if abnormal amounts are consumed, whether in foods or in synthetic forms, they can lead to toxicity.

TASKS:

1. How are medical substance eliminated from the body?

2. What may improper excretion lead to?

3. Explain (define) the following terms: systemic effect, local effect, metabolism, side effect, toxicity.

 

 

DRUG ACTION

Drug action has several meanings. For example, drug action can refer to the action the drug has on specific cells, tissues, organs, or systems. Drug action can also refer to the effect the drug has on a disease or disease symptoms. The following words refer to the latter usage of the term drug action.

Palliative. A drug is said to have a palliative effect when it relieves the symptoms of the disease, but does not cure the disease. A very common example is the use of Tylenol to reduce a fever: The medication relieves the symptom (fever) but does not cure or combat the underlying cause of the fever.