Translate the sentences with an Absolute Participle construction.

1. Carbohydrates are compounds containing the elements of car­bon, hydrogen and oxygen, the last two elements being usually pres­ent in the proportions in which they are found in water. 2. Sugars contain from three to nine carbon atoms, those with five and six carbon atoms being the most important. 3. Sugar molecules consist of atoms, each sugar molecule having its own special atom. 4. The reducing effect was calculated as glucose, the reduction being not necessarily due to this sugar alone. 5. A method for quantitative determination of novocain in water solutions is suggested, the latter containing products of its hydrolysis after the separation of p-amino-benzoic acid. 6. There are some relatively rare desoxy sugars found in nature, these desoxy sugars containing one or two oxygen atoms fewer than the corresponding carbohydrates with six carbon atoms.

Answer the questions: 1. What are the main properties of sugars and polysaccharides?2. What do simple carbohydrates include? 3. What are the main constituents of complex carbohydrates?4. Why is fiber necessary for our health?5. What is the main source of energy for the brain?

 

PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Proteins are highly complex compounds elaborated by living cells, and containing the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulphur.

The molecular weights of proteins are known to be estimated only approximately (приблизно). Those proteins which are soluble form colloidal solutions which are generally viscous and may form gels if sufficiently con­centrated (e. g. gelatin). From their colloidal solutions many pro­teins are precipitated by electrolytes. Many of them (e. g. egg albu­men) are coagulated by heat. When the temperature is above 80 °C it produces a marked change in protein structure. This is an example of "denaturation", with diminution (зменшення) in solubility and other changes in properties, which may be brought about (проявлятися) in proteins by various means, including the action of reagents. Proteins can be hydrolyzed with formation of simpler substances. Protein is essential for growth and development. It provides the body with energy, and is needed for the manufacture of hormones, antibodies, enzymes, and tissues. This process takes place, for example, during digestion in the stom­ach and intestinal tract. It also helps maintain the proper acid-alkali (кислотно-лужний) balance in the body.

When protein is consumed, the body breaks it down into amino acids, the building blocks of all proteins. Some of amino acids are designated ( визначаються ) nonessential (замінні). This does not mean that they are unnecessary, but rather that they do not have to come from the diet because they can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids. Other amino acids are considered essential (незамінні), meaning that the body cannot synthesize them, and therefore must obtain from the diet. A protein builds muscle.

Complete proteins are found in meat, fish, poultry, cheese, eggs, and milk. Incomplete proteins, which constitute the second group, contain only some of the essential amino acids. These proteins are found in a variety of foods, including grains, legumes, and leafy green vegetables.

Form the verbs from the following nouns using conversion where possible:

e. g.: water - to water

complex, study, change, form, matter, effect, difference, combi­nation, drop, compound, powder, test, arm, exercise, light, analyst, experiment, variety, use, crystalline, increase

Replace the infinitives in brackets by one of the Perfect Tenses:

1. We (to isolate) more than 20 amino-acids from protein hydrolysates. 2. He (to work) much at the problem of obtaining proteins. 3. The reverse process (to take place) after the amino-acid molecules linked together in chains. 4. The progressive decrease in the molec­ular complex (to stop) by the end of the reaction. 5. Complete hydro­lysis of proteins (to change) their properties. 6. Substances of such complexity (to crystallize) under ordinary conditions. 7. When the temperature (to rise) above 60—80 °C it produced a marked change in protein structure.

Translate the sentences containing Complex Subject:

1. Proteins are known to be highly complex compounds elaborat­ed by living cells. 2. Most of the chemicals proved to be salts. 3. Proteins are considered to be particularly important as the source of combined nitrogen in foodstuffs. 4. You are likely to know that the molecular weights of proteins can be estimated only approximately.

Answer the questions: 1.What properties does the process of denaturation influence?Is protein needed for the manufacture of hormones, antibodies, enzymes and tissues?What do the terms “essential” and non-essential” mean?

 

FATS

Although much attention has been focused on the need to reduce dietary fat, the body does need fat. During infancy and childhood, fat is necessary for normal brain development. Throughout life, it is essential to provide energy and support growth. Fat is, in fact, the most concentrated source of energy available to the body. However, after about two years of age, the body requires only small amounts of fat. Excessive fat intake is a major causative factor in obesity, high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, and colon cancer, and has been linked to a number of other disorders as well. To understand how fat intake is related to these health problems, it is necessary to understand the different types of fats available and the ways in which these fats act within the body.

Fats are composed of building blocks called fatty acids. There are three major categories of fatty acids – saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated. These classifications are based on the number of hydrogen atoms in the chemical structure of a given molecule of fatty acid.

Saturated fatty acids are found primarily in animal products, including dairy items, such as whole milk, cream, and cheese, and fatty meats like beef, veal, lamb, pork, and ham. The fat marbling you can see in beef and pork is composed of saturated fat. Some vegetable products – including coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and vegetable shortening (кулінарний жир) – are also high in saturates. The liver uses saturated fats to manufacture cholesterol.

Most experts recommend that the daily intake of saturated fats be kept below 10 percent of total caloric intake. However, for people who have severe problems with high blood cholesterol, even that level may be too high.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in corn, soybean and sunflower oil, certain fish oils. Unlike the saturated fats, polyunsaturates may actually lower your blood cholesterol level. An individual’s intake of polyunsaturated fats should not exceed 10 percent of total caloric intake.

Monounsaturated fatty acids are found mostly in vegetable and nut oils. The intake of monounsaturated fats should be kept between 10 and 15 percent of total caloric intake.

One other element, trans-fatty acids, may also play a role in blood cholesterol levels. Also called trans fats, these substances occur when polyunsaturated oils are altered through hydrogenation, a process used to harden liquid vegetable oils into solid foods like margarine and shortening. If your goal is to lower cholesterol, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats are more desirable than saturated fats or products with trans-fatty acids. Just as important, your total calories from fat should not constitute more than 20 to 25 percent of daily calories.

 

 

HERBS IN HUMAN HISTORY

 

Botanically, a herb is any plant whose stems die down completely in winter. In common usage, the term is applied to aromatic plants whose leaves, stems, flowers or seeds have culinary or medicinal uses.

Records show that herbs were in use in ancient Greece; they were valued as flavourings ( приправа ) and for their fragrance ( аромат ), and they also formed the basis of medical treatment. Hippocrates, the Greek physician (c. 460 BC), listed several hundred herbal remedies whose use persisted for many centuries.

Herbs were introduced into Britain by the Romans, who adopted many of the Greek customs. They, too, valued the reputedly supernatural powers of the plants, as well as their culinary and medicinal uses. The wreath of bay laurel (лавровий вінок) worn by victors of wars, games and contests is well known. In Britain, too, herbs became a focus of superstition (забобон), reaching their peak of importance in the Middle Ages when every village had its witch (чаклун, знахар), and every witch her herbs and potions (зілля). Herbs were also used to counteract the witches' powers; garlic (часник), hyssop (гісоп) and wormwood (полин) all combated witchcraft and evil spirits.

The medicinal qualities of herbs were even more important. In 1597, John Gerard, the London herbalist and apothecary, published his Herbal, a volume containing 1000 pages with woodcut illustrations of 3000 plants. Herbal remedies continued to be the main preoccupation of physicians until the 18th century, and even today, certain drugs are still obtained from natural sources. The pain-killing drug morphine is derived from poppies (мак); digitalin, a heart stimulant, is extracted from foxgloves (наперстянка); and colchicine, used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions, is obtained from the autumn crocus (Colchicum).

The culinary use of herbs reached its climax during the 16th century. This was the age of the Elizabethan herb garden; a well-stocked garden would have up to 60 different herbs, for use in medicinal drinks, for scents and for cooking. These gardens were laid out in decorative, often intricate, patterns interspersed with low-growing hedges of lavender, rosemary or box.

During the 19th century the cultivation and use of herbs began to decline. At the beginning of the 20th century, the herbs commonly used had been reduced to four: mint (м’ята), parsley ( петрушка ), sage and thyme (чебрець). However, with the rising popularity of highly flavoured dishes, attention is once more focused on the herb garden.

Define the word herb.