The aim: to make students know classification of functional styles.

1. The definition of the functional style. A style of language can be defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter conditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect [professor Galperin`s point of view]. Each style is a relatively stable system at the given stage in the development of the literary language, but it changes, and sometimes considerably, from one period to another. Styles of language is a historical category. Thus the style of emotive prose actually began to function as an independent style after the second half of the 16-th century, the newspaper style budded off from the publicity style, oratorical style has undergone considerable fundamental changes and so with other style. The development of each style is predetermined by the changes in the norms of standard English. It is also greatly influenced by changing social conditions, the progress of science and development of cultural life in the country. For instance, the emotive elements of language were used in scientific prose in the 18-th century. Scientists in many fields used the emotional language instead of one more logically précis convincing, because they lacked the scientific data obtainable only by deep, prolonged research. The English literary language has evolved a number of style easily distinguishable one from another.

2 Classification of functional styles.

1. Official style, represented in all kinds of official documents and papers.

2. Scientific style, it is found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific, academic publications.

3. Publicist style, covering such genres as essay, feature article, most writings of “new journalism”, public speeches.

4. Newspaper style, observed in the majority of material printed in newspapers.

5. Belles-lettres style, embracing numerous and versatile genres of creative writing. Each of the enumerated styles is exercised in 2 forms – written and oral; an article and a lecture are examples of the 2 forms of the scientific style, news broadcast, on the radio and TV or newspaper information materials – of the newspaper style; an essay and a public speech – of the publicist style. The number of functional styles and the principles of their differentiation change with time and reflect the state of the functioning language at a given period. So, only recently, most style classifications had also included the so called poetic style which dealt with verbal forms specific for poetry. Something similar can be said about the oratoric style, which, in Ancient Greece, was instrumental in the creation of “Rhetoric”, where Aristotle, its author, elaborated the basics of style study, still relevant today. The oratoric (style) skill though has lost its position in social and political life. Nowadays speeches are mostly written first, and so contain all the characteristic features of publicist writing. Stylistics of literature study as well as (poetry) poetics is the branch of literary theory and takes an important place in the history of literature. The task of stylistics of literature study is the deep penetration in (of) the creative activity of the author and into the peculiarity of its individual technique. All the above – mentioned styles are specified within the literary type of the language. The colloquial type of the language, on the contrary, is characterized by the in officiality, spontaneity, informality of the communicative situation. Sometimes the colloquial type of speech is labeled “the colloquial style” and entered into the classification of functional styles of the language, regardless of the situational and linguistic differences. Alongside with this consideration there exists a strong tendency to treat colloquial speech as an individual language system with its independent set of language units and rules of their connection.

3. Basic functional styles of the modern studied language. Functional stylistics, dealing with all the subdivisions of the language and all its possible usages, is the most all – embracing “global” trend in style study, and such specified stylistics as the scientific prose study, or newspaper style study, or the like are elaborations of certain fields of functional stylistics.

In terms of information theory the author’ stylistics may be named the stylistics of the encoder: the language being viewed as the code (of) to shape the information into the message, and the supplier of the information, respectively, as the encoder. The addresser in this case plays the part of the decoder of the information contained in the message, and the problems connected with adequate reception of the message without any informational losses or deformations, i.e. with adequate decoding, are the concern of decoding stylistics.

And, finally, the stylistics, proceeding from the norms of language usage at a given period and teaching these norms to language speakers, especially the ones, dealing with the language professionally (editors, publishers, writers, journalists, teachers, etc.) is called practical stylistics.

Lexical stylistics correspondsto the lexical level of a language. At studies the stylistic functions of lexics and regards the interrelation of direct and indirect meanings. Lexical stylistics as well as stylistics of literature study and linguistic stylistics studies different components of contextual meanings of words, and especially their expressive, emotional and estimative potential and their relation to different functional – stylistic strata. Dialectical words, terms, slang words, colloquial words and expressions, neologisms, archaisms, foreign words etc. are studied from the point of view of their interrelations with different conditions of the context. Descriptive synchronic lexicology takes its usage not only in stylistics, but also in historical lexicology, especially, when some authors use the old meanings of words and then the etymological information may help the full disclosure (opening) of expressiveness of the text. Lexical stylistics may also study the expressive potential of some word formation models, of some types of abbreviations, models of word composition. Each branch of lexicology may give very useful information for stylistics. An important role in stylistic analysis plays the discussion of phraseological units and proverbs. Grammatical stylistics is subdivided into the morphological and syntactic.

Morphological stylistics regards the stylistic possibilities of different grammatical categories peculiar to this or that parts of speech. This branch of stylistics is beginning to be elaborated in the English language.

Syntactic stylistics investigates expressive possibilities of the word order, types of sentences, types of syntactic ties. This branch has its century traditions and rich literature. An important place have the so-called figures of speech – syntactic, stylistic or rhetoric figures, i.e. specific syntactic constructions giving the additional expressiveness to speech.

Phonostylistics or phonetic stylistics includes all notions of sound organization of rhymes and proses: rhythm, alliteration, sound interchange in connection with the problem of the content of sound forms, i.e. the presence of stylistic functions. Dealing with (different) various cases of phonemic and graphemic foregrounding we should not forget the unilateral nature of a phoneme: this language unit helps to differentiate meaningful lexemes but has no meaning of its own. Devoid of denotation and connotation meaning a phoneme, according to recent studies has a strong associative and sound – instrumenting power. Well – known are numerous cases of onomatopoeia – the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such as “hiss”, “murmur”, “bump”, “grumble”, “sizzle” and many more. The phonemic structure of the word proves to be important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. Poetry abounds in some specific types of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging to alliteration – the repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words, and assonance – the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). As an example of the first may serve the famous lines of E.A. Poe:

…silken sand uncertain

rustling of each purple curtain…

An example of second is provided by the unspeakable combination of sounds found in R. Browning:

Nor soul helps flesh now

More than flesh helps soul.

In contemporary advertizing, mass media and, above all, creative prose sound is fore-grounded mainly though the change of its accepted graphical representation. This violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon. Graphons, indicating irregularities or carelessness on pronunciation were occasionally introduced into English novel and journalism as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century and since then have acquired an ever growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers, journalists, advertizers, and a continuously widening scope of functions. The use of information theory in the questions of linguistics, poetry, stylistics and aesthetics for the last two decades are constantly growing. This science includes all branches of knowledge: the humanitarian and natural sciences and intensively developing communicative linguistics. It is necessary to stress that notions and terms of information theory are widely used in the works on stylistics and poetry both in our country and abroad. Let’s name some of the scholars who actively use them in their works: I.R. Galperin, V.A. Kukharenko, V.N. Komissarov, Y.S. Stepanov and others. The value of nations of information theory for humanitarian sciences is in the fact that they can(not) afford to see general features in these phenomena. The use of information theory in the questions of linguistics, poetry, stylistics and aesthetics are constantly growing for the last two decades.

The information theory was first suggested by K.Shennon. Let’s turn to the term “information” itself. We have got used to understand information as some sums of information. In its modern understanding “information” is the internal content of the process of reflection of peculiarities of one objects of reality as the type changing peculiarities of other objects. It means that information is the track left by one phenomenon on the other. Transformation and getting of information is based on the important peculiarity of the material reflection.

System “author-book-reader” is regarded by the authors who are engaged in the problems of information as the system of transformation of information. It is necessary to mark that Shennon was interested in transformation of information of another type (non-semantic) and his scheme of communication suits our situation too (L.V. Arnold).

Code is the system of knowledge and rules of their connection for transformation of information on the definite canal. The natural language is the main, but not the only code of literature. Other codes play primarily additional role and are transformed in literature through language code: such as, e.g. codes of traditions and ethics, codes of other types of art. Time process reflecting message is called “ signal ”. In fiction “signal” is embodied in difficult interconnections of phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic and graphic language means and takes place in the process of reading and comprehension a short rhyme (poem), sonnet e.g. may be richer in information and call the more strong reaction than a large novel.

Message is the unity of reflected in the regarded period of time of the features of source. Message for stylistics in the text of the analysed literary work or its extract of such a length which is recognized both necessary and sufficient to be aesthetically meaningful with ideological content.

Any fiction work is the result of a numerous act of choice. Singling out in continuation, i.e. in the non-abrupted function of the chosen discreet units which afford to restore the whole part of reality is called quanting. It may be done on different levels e.g. Describing in the novel “Death of a hero” the fate of one man – the young artist Yeorge Winterborn, the reader perceives the fate of all “the lost generation” on the whole (The author is P.Aldington).

Literature is the canal of transformation of information. Memory is all that information which gives the reader possibility to have it up to this given reading.

a) The from of communication.

Language means which we choose for communication depend on several factors, the most important among them being the situation of communication act. Depending on the [communication ] situation [ which includes the purpose of the communication and its participants] we adhere eighths to informal, as to formal manner. The former is observed in everyday non-official communication which is known as collegial speech. It occupies a prominent pact in our lives, and is viewed by some linguistic as a system of language means so strongly differing from those presented in the formal[literary] communication that it can be classified as an independent entity with its own peculiar units and rules of their structuring.

The literary communication, most often [ but not always ] materialized in the written from,is not homogeneous, and proceeding from its function [purpose]we speak of different functional system. as the whole e of the language it sect, functional styles are also changeable. Their quantity and quality change in the course of their development. At present most scholars differentiate such functional styles: scientific, official, publicity, newspaper, belles- letters.

b) Stylistic features: Functional stylistic, dealing in fact with all the subdivisions of the language and all its possible wages, is the most all-embracing `global` trend in style study, and such specified stylistic as the scientific prose study, or newspaper study, or the like may be considered elaborations of certain fields of functional stylistic. Functional style deals stylistic use of language resources, i. e. with such a handling of language elements that enables them to carry not only the basic, logical, dust also additional stylistic information of various types. Stylistic features of the functional style involve rather subtle procedures of finding the fore grounded elements and indicating the chemistry of its c6ntecxtual changes, brought about by the intentiona3, planned operation of the addresses, i. e. effected by the conscious stylistic use of the language.

c) The type of speech and compositionally – speech from. There are the following types of speech, where personages express their minds in the form of uttered speech. The dialogue is one of the most significant forms of the personage’s self – characterization, which allows the author to seemingly eliminate himself from the process. Another from is interior speech of the personage, which all6ws the author [ and the readers ] to observe his ideas and views in the making. Interior speech is best known in the form of interior monologue, a rather lengthy piece of the text. Both of them may be realized in the uttered [ dialogue] and inner [ interior speech ] forms. Represented speech serves to show either the mental reproduction of a once uttered remark or the character’s thinking. Through the dialogue the characters are better portrayed, it also bring the action nearer to the reader, makes it seem more swift and more intense. Interior monologue renders the thoughts and feeling of a character. Any work of f5ction consists of relatively independent elements – narrations description, dialogue, interior monologue, digressions, etc. Narration is dynamic, it gives a continuous account of events, while description is static, it is a verbal portraiture of on object, person or scene. Digression consists of an insertion of material that has no immediate relation to the them or action. It may be lyrical, philosophical or critical.

d) The compositional structure of the text.

The interrelation between different components of a literary text is called composition. Most novels and stories have plots. Every plot is an arrangement of meaningful events. No matter how insignificant or deceptively casual, the events of the story are meant to suggest the character’s morals and motives. Sometimes a plot follows the chorological order of events. At other times their are jumps back and forth in time [ flashback and foreshadowing]. The four structural components of the pl6t are exposition, complication, climax and denouement. Exposition contains of the story. It is usually to be found at the beginning of the story, but may also be interwoven in the narrative by means of flashbacks, so that the reader gradually comes to know the characters and events leading up to the present situation. Complication is a separate incident helping to unfold the action, and might involve thoughts and feelings as well. Climax is the decisive moment on which the fate of the characters and the final action depend. It is the point at which the forces in the conflict reach the highest intensity. Denouement means `the untying of a knot`. Wh5ch 5s precisely what happen in this phase. Some stories end right after the climax, leaving it up to the reader to judge what will be the outcome of the conflict.

e) The specific use of the language means of different levels.

The phoneme as the language unit helps to differentiate meaningful lexemes but has no meaning of its own. Devoid of denotation and co notational meaning a phoneme, according to recent studies, has a strong associative and sound- incrementing power. Cf. while unable to speak about the semantics of [ou], [ju:], we acknowledge their sense differentiating significance in `sew` [sou] - and `sew` [sju:]; or [au], [ou] in `bow`, ect. In contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, creative prose sound is fore grounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This international [variation] violation of the graphical shape of a word [ or word combination] used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graph on. Yraphons, indicating irregularities as carelessness of the 18-th century and since thebe have acquired an ever growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers, journalists, advertisers and a continuously widening scope of functions. Graphon is an effective means of supplying information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, ect. So, when the famous Thackeray’s character- butler yellow plush- impresses his listeners with the learned words pronouncing them as `sellybrated` [celebrated], illygitimit` [illegitimate], jewinile [ juvenile] or Mr Babbitt used `eytalians` [Italians ], peepul [people]- the reader obtains not only the vivid image and the social, cultural, educational characteristics attitude to them. Yraphon is very good at convening the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act. This is phone-graphical levels. The word is a linguistic unit of maj6r significance, which names, qualifies and evaluates the micro – and macrocosm of the surrounding world. The semantic structure of the world is constit4ted of various types of lexical meanings, the major one being demonstrational, which informs of the subject of communication; and also ins3uding connotation, which inform about the participants and conditions of communication. All the words possessing an am five meaning are also find non – emotive, intellectual evolution [e.g. `good `,` bad`].

Lecture 10

T he Theme: Interstylistic Differentiation: Functional Styles, Substyles, Genres, Stylistic Features of Functional Styles.

The Aim: To instill in students the habits of recognizing of stylistic features of functional styles.

 

All languages have certain common features, typical of the general belles- letters style, which make up the foundation of the style, by which the particular styles is made recognizable and can therefore be singled out. The common function of the three styles is called `aesthetic- cognitive`. This is a double function which aims at the cognitive process which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and the same calls forth a feeling of pleasure. The psychological element – pleasure is not irrelevant when evaluating the effect of communication. Voting gives more pleasure and satisfaction than realizing that one has the ability to penetrate into the hidden tissue of events, phenomena and human activity, and to perceive the relation between various seemingly unconnected facts brought together by the creative mind of the writer. One of the rather widely accepted classifications which singles out the following functional styles: 1)official style, represented in all kinds of official documents and papers; 2). scientific style is found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific academic publications; 3.) publicist style, covering such genres as essay, feature article, most writing of `new journalism`, public speeches etc; 4) newspaper style, observed in the majority of materials printed in newspapers; 5) belles- letters style, embracing numerous and versatile genres of creative writing. It is only the first three that are inevitably recognized in all stylistic features. As to the newspaper style,it is often regarded as part of the publicist domain and is not always treated individually. But the biggest controversy is flaming around the belles- letters style. The unlimited possibilities of creative writing which covers the whole of the unnerve and make use of all language resources led some scholars to the conviction that because of the liability of its contours it can be hardly qualified as a functional style. Still others claim that, regardless of its versatility, the belles-lettres style, in each of its concrete representations, fulfils the aesthetic function, which in fact singles out this style out of other and gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness, i. e. charges it which the status of an autonomous functional style. Since the belles-lettres style has `aesthetic- cognitive` function, it follows that is has something in common with scientific style. The purpose of the belles- letters style is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of five by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style. The belles- letters style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more that one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena

a. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy

4. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree [ in plays] or a lesser one [ in emotive prose] or a slight degree [ in poems ].

The belles-letters style is individual in essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties. Linguistic stylistic peculiarity is extremely apparent in belles- letters style because it studies, as we know, the correlation of speech situation and linguistic means used by speakers, i. e. stratification according to use. Linguistic stylistics was found by Charles Bally.

1) it compares general national norm with specific characteristic for different spheres of communication subsystems called functional stylistics and dialects [lingua stylistic in this narrow sense is called functional stylistics] and

2) studies elements of the language with the viewpoint of their ability to express and to cause emotions, associations and estimates.

The first differentiating property of verse is its ordinary form, which is based mainly of the rhythmic and phonetic sub style are held by rhythmic patterns. In emotive prose the imagery is not so rich as in poetry, the percentage of words with contextual meaning is in not so high as in poetry. emotive prose is the combination of the spoken and written varieties of the language, there are always to forms of communication which present-monol6gue [ the writer’s speech ] and dialogue [ the speech of the characters]. Emotive prose as a separate from of imagery literature, that is fiction, came into being rather late in the history of the English literary language. Language of the drama excludes not direct speech but monologue. The author’s speech is almost entirely excluded expect for the playwrights remarks and stage directions. It follows that the language of the drama [ plays] is always stylized. the styl5zition of collegial language is one of the features of plays which at different stages in the history of English drama manifested itself in different ways.

Lecture 11

The Theme Functionally- Communicative and Linguo-Stylistic Specificity of Imagery Style (prose, poetry, drama). Aesthetic Function of Imagery Style. Individual Style of the Author.

The Aim: To make students learn aesthetic function of imagery style and individual style of the author.

Work of imagery literature and other texts serving the material for stylistic analysis are the examples of individual speech which are given due to constant observation. For depicting the text and singling out its (the) peculiarities in comparison with other available text in the given language it is necessary to establish terms for comparison. To established characteristic and repeated principles of choice we must know all those forms from which the choice is made. The system of the given language on the whole and its norm are serving terms of comparison. By the norm itself we understand not only neutral literary standard but also functional styles and dialects. The system of language and its norm are not given for us in the sense of pure observation, but are singled out by means of abstraction. Using the term of modeling one can imagine the system of language as an abstract model, the norm- as a static and individual speech – as an empiric observing material. The system of a language consists of phonetic, lexical and grammatical subsystems may be regarded as structure. The system of a language defines general possibilities for usage of its elements, norm in that what really used which is adapted and understood in this given society. In order to explain the difference between the system, norm and individual speech let us address to pronouns. In the systems of the English language pronouns of the first (place) person singular mean the speaking person, and is contra used to pronouns of the first person plural making the speaking person and one more or several persons. According to the norm of the English language e. g. in scientific styles of speech instead of ``I`` possible to use ``we` e.g. ``As an illustration let us take the language of Euclidian geometry and algebra.` (A. Einstein). In individual speech the doctor may say to the patient: Come, come, we mustn’t get ourself all worked up, must we? (J. Thurber). Literary norm of a language as E. S. Istrina writes: `` is defined by the degree of usage on conditions of authoritativeness of sources``. Composers of grammars and dictionaries in describing literary norms are retying on the material of works of fiction, scientific and publicist prose. The rightness of speech is defined by the usage of words in speech of educated native speakers but not by logic and etymologic criteria. Speech is always depended on the situation of communication. General literary standard is called the norm in the narrow sense of the word. A special branch of stylistics which studies the norm of ` the right` speech is called – normative stylistic or orthology. An essential difference of orthology from linguo-stylistics is that it marks not only variants of functioning of a language, but given the estimation of analyzed forms as `the right ` or ` non-right`. Normative stylistics or orthology studies (is engaged in) in a special branch of stylistic studying the norm of `the right ` speech. Orthology studies also the character and volume of conscious influence on the development and functioning of a language on the side of native speaker and on the side of educational system, as for as norm in this sense is artificially supported by school. The dictionary of Fuuler is one the most numerous English works in normative stylistics. The basic orthological category is the category of variation connected with the notion that a language is always constant development and changeability due to which the elements of the old and the new are coexisting. The norm of a language reflects a typical usage of possibilities represented by a system on dependence of participants, spheres and aims of communication.

The existence of the norm`s proper presupposes the possibility of such oppositions, as: structure: norm: individual speech: common population norm: dialect: neutral style: collogual style: bookish style: literary normative speech:n common speech. Norm usually includes different subsystems of realization of structure. It points out traditional, but not necessary `right` forms, as there are exist some other norms except literary norms (dialect and others).

Literary or imagery language is a historical category. It exists as a variety of the national language which imposes on definite morphological and stylistic norm. It allows modifications but within the frame work of the established system by the language community at every period in the development of language. We may even say that 2 norms co-exist. But one of the co-existing forms of the language will give way to rival and rather vanish form the language entirely or else remain on its outskirts. There are two conflicting tendencies in the process of establishing the norm:

1. preservation of the already existing norm, sometimes with attempts to re-establish old form of the language;

2. introduction of new norm not yet firmly established;

There is not hard division between the literary and non-literary language. They are interdependent. The literary language enriches its vocabulary. It also adopts some of its syntactical peculiarities by so doing, give them the status of norms of the literary language. Thus selection is the most typical feature of the literary language. The process of selecting and admitting lexical or morphological forms into the literary language is not a conscious effort on the part of scholars. As the national language is the creation of people as a whole, which gradually and imperceptibly take place in their speech from one generation to another, cannot fail in the long run to enter the literary language.

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are genuine, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. In emotive prose the imagery is not so rich as in poetry. Emotive prose is the combination of the spoken and written varieties of the language. There are always two forms of communication which present – monologue (the writer’s speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters). Language of the drama excludes not direct speech but monologue. The author speech is almost entirely excluded except for playwright`s remarks and stage directions.

Aesthetic Function of Imagery Style.

The peculiarities of imagery style are connected with the peculiarities of a word and speech. Aesthetic advantage of imagery style appealing to the brains and hearts of people in its brightness and distinction of phenomena, events, persons.

Individual style of the author.

Problems, concerning the choice of language means and their organization into a message, from the viewpoint of the addresser, are the centre of attention of the individual style study, which puts particular emphasis on the study of an individual author`s style, looking for correlations between the creative concepts of the author and the language of his works.

The English literary language was particularly regulated band formalized during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The influence of the men- of- letters on this process can hardly be overestimated. Some of them, none the less, hindered thaw natural, organic process of development. Bough (Albert C.) - a history of the English language points out that swift, for example, `in matters of language …. Was a conservative`. Byron on the other hand was very li liberal and words and phrases. Not all of them gained recognition in and stayed in the literary language; but nevertheless they were facts of the literary language by their very nature. Take fore example the word `weatherolligy` coined by Buron. The literary language greatly influences the non-literary language/ many words, constructions and phonetic improvements have been in trod to though it into the English colloquial language. This influence had its greatest (influence) effect in the 19-th century with the spread of general education, and in the present century with the introduction of radio and television. Computers into the daily lives of the people. The non-literary language manifests itself in all aspects of the language: phonetics, morphological, lexical and syntactical [ ai] instead of [ei] - rain instead of [ rein] the dropping of [h] and the insertion of [h] at the beginning of some words. The best way to check this of that form of non- literary English is to contrast it to the existing. Literary English is almost synonymous with the term Standard English. it is best described in an interesting book written by Randolph Quirk, Professor of the English language in the University of London, the title of which is `The use of English`. He states: ` we have seen that standard English is basically an ideal, a mode of expression that we seek when we wish to communicate beyond our immediate community with members of the wider community of the nation as a whole. As an adial, it cannot be perfectly realized and we must expect that members of different ` wider communities `` (Britain, America, Nigeria, for example) may produce different realizations. It fact, however, the remarkable things is the very high degree of unanimity, the small amount of divergence. Any of us can read a newspaper printed in Leeds or San Francisco or Delhi without difficulty and often ever without realizing that there are differences at all. Cockney, regarded as the remnants of the London dialect, seems to growing into a generic term for any term of non-standard English in Britain, although non-standard verities of English exist in territorial variants. Standard English is an abstraction, an ideal. To use present-day term logy, standard English is kinds of variants of English both within and without Great Britain. This ideal helps to establish more or less strict norms for all aspects of the language. The publication of dictionaries does much to establish the literary language norms. and the compilers of English dictionaries are forced willy-nilly to acknowledge a variant and present it co-existing alongside the one previously recognized as solely acceptable.

4. (a Brief Outline)

For seminars

5. Verities of language.

The actual situation of the communication has evolved 2 verities of language:

The spoken and the written. The varying aims of the communication has caused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems or styles of language. Of the 2 verifies of language diachronically the spoken is primary and the written is seconding. Eagh of these varieties has developed its own features and qualities. The spoken variety of a language has the presence of an interlocutor. The written presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue- the written in the form of a monologue. The spoken has a considerable advantage over the written in that the human voice comes into play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which together with the intonation, give additional information. The written language has to seek means to compensate for that what it lacks. The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language, wider or narrower at deferent periods in the development of the literary language will always remain apparent due to the different in circumstances in which the two are used. Here is an example showing the difference. `Marvelous beast a fox. Great place for wild life, these wooded chins; so steep you can`t disturb them- pigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares, pheasants- every mortal things.`

Its written counterpart would run as follows: ` what a marvelous beast a fox is! These wooded chins are splendid place for wild life. There are so steep that one can`t disturb anything. Therefore one can see every manageable creature her- pigeons, jays, woodpeckers, rabbits, foxes, hares, and pheasants. The use of peculiarities of both variants will always produce a ludicrous effect. In this connection A.S.Pushkin wrote:

` to use the spoken language only, means not to know the language.` The spoken language its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting. It vanishes after having fulfilled its porpoise, which is to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial or really important. The writer language lives together with idea it expresses. The spoken variety differs from the written language phonetically (that is, in its written representation) morphologically, exactly and syntactically. Thus, of morphological forms as he`d, she`d, she`s (she has, she is) and the like e.g. `I`d`ve killed him` (Salinger). `Don`t ` rusted of `doesn`t` as in ` I wonder his father don`t take him in his bank`. `He` instead of `him`, as in `I used to play tennis with he and nirs antolini` (Salinger).

Here are some more examples of present day collogues phrases which are gaining groun in standard English but which are strongly felt to be colloquial. How come? (= why? Who does that happen? So much the beater, to be up to something. That is why the most striking different between the spoken and written language is, however in the vocabulary used. There are words and phrases typically colloquial and typically bookish. Such words and phrases are sloppy, to be gone on somebody (to be violently in love with) and other immediately mark the utterance as being colloquial, that is, belonging to the spoken variety of language.

The characteristic syntactical feature of the written variety of language can easily be perceived by the student of language. As the situation must be clear by the context, the utterance become more exact. That means the relation between the part of the utterance must be prices. Hence the abundance of all kinds of conjunctions, adverbial (clauses) phrases and other means which may serve as connectives. A someone said, a clear writer is always conscious of a reader aver his shoulder. He must explain. Most of the connecting word were evolved in the written language and for the most part are used only there. Such connectives as: moreover, likewise, nevertheless, on the contrary, presently, however, eventually, therefore, in connection which, hereafter, henceforth, have a bookish flavor and seldom used in ordinary conversation.

Lecture 12