Basic parts of stylistics. The links of stylistics with other sciences. The basic ways of the development of stylistics in the country and foreign linguistics.

The aim: to stipulate in students the notion of style and stylistics.

The term “stylistics” originated from the Greek “Stylos”, which means «a pen». In the course of time it developed several meanings, each one applied to a specific study of language elements and their use in speech. Stylistics is a branch of linguistics investigating principles, the effect of choice and the usage of lexical, grammatical, phonetic and language means on the whole for the transformation of thoughts and emotions in different conditions of communication.

But still the subject of stylistics has so far not been definitely outlined. It will not be exaggeration to say that among the various branches of General Linguistics the obscure in content is undoubtedly stylistics. This is due to a numbers of reasons.

1. Basic parts of stylistics. Stylistics of a language investigates on the one hand the specific features of language subsystems called functional styles and sublanguages characterized by variability of vocabulary, phraseology and syntax and on the other hand it characterized by expressive, emotional peculiarities of different language means.

Stylistics of speech studies separate real texts regarding in what way they convey the content, not only taking into consideration the norms, known in grammar and stylistics of a language, but also on the basis of meaningful divergences coming out from these norms. In order to imagine clearly the subject of stylistics you should bare in mind that the language as is a means of communication is differently used in different situations. First of all there is confusion between the terms “style” and “ stylistics”.. The first concept is so broad that it is hardly possible to regard it as a term. We speak of style in architecture, literature, behavior, linguistics, dress and in other fields of human activity. Even in linguistics, the word “style” is so widely used that it needs interpretation.

The majority of linguists who deal with the subject of style agree that the term applies to the following fields of investigation:

1) the aesthetic function of language, 2) expressive means in language, 3) synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, 4) emotional coloring in language, 5) a system of special devices called stylistic devices, 6) the splitting of the literary language into separate subsystems called functional styles, 7) the interrelation between language and thought and 8) the individual manner of an author in making use of language. The term “Style” is also applied to the teaching of how to write clearly, simply and emphatically.

These heterogeneous applications of the word style in linguistics have given rise to different points of view as to what is the domain of stylistics.

There is a widely held view that style is the correspondence between thought and its expression. The notion is based on the assumption that of the two functions of language, it is said to have 2 functions: as a means communication and a means of shaping one’s thoughts. Many great minds have made valuable observation on the interrelation between thought and expression. The main trend in most of these observations may be summarized as follows: the linguistic form of the idea expressed always reflects the peculiarities of the thought. In this connection the following quotation is interesting: “To finish and complete your thought!” How long it takes, how rare it is, what an immense delight!.. As soon as a thought has reached its full perfection, the word springs into being, offers itself, and closes the thought.” (Joubert)

That thought and expression are inseparable from each other is a well- established fact. The subject of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style, of language, i.e. its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with other styles of language. The task which stylists set before is to make an attempt to single out such problems which are typically stylistic and can not therefore be treated in any other branch of linguistic science. Stylistics will be profitable to those who have a sound linguistic background. The expressive means of English and stylistic devices used in the literary language can only be understood when thorough knowledge of phonetic, grammatical and lexical data of the given language has been attained. The stylistic devices (SD) must be observed on different levels: on the phonetic, morphemic, lexical, phrase logical, syntactic levels and on the utterance level. If a thorough command of language data has not been acquired, the subtleties of the theory of stylistics may escape the student or may prove to be beyond his grasp.

For example. We can easily distinguish between a piece of emotive prose and a business letter. We can tell also a newspaper brief from as scientific thesis and a business letter, a poem from a military official document, a piece of oratory from a diplomatic pact and so on. Our knowledge of the characteristic features of different styles of language is based not only on our intuition. There must be objective criteria which the system relies on and which we can define as the leading or principal features of a given style.

Stylistics of literature study. Decoding stylistics. Stylistics and information theory.

Stylistics is subdivided into lingua stylistics and stylistics of literature study. The foundations of lingua stylistics were worked out by a famous French linguist Charles Bally. Many linguists follow Ch. Bally’s viewpoint, claiming that stylistics is primarily the study of synonymic resources. He compares the common national norms with subsystems peculiar and characteristic for different spheres of communication called functional styles and dialects. And studies the elements of a language from the point of their ability to express and call out emotions, additional associations and estimations. Thus, functional stylistics, which became and remains an international, very important trend in style study, deals with “sets”, “paradigms” of language units of all levels of language hierarchy serving to accommodate situations. These paradigms are known as functional styles of the language.

Proceeding from the famous definition of the style of a language offered by V.V. Vinigradov more than three decades ago, we shall follow the understanding of a functional style formulated by I. R. Galperin as “a system of coordinated, interrelated and interconditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aims at a definite effect”. The branch of stylistics which is intensively developing is called Comparative Stylistics, which is parallel considers stylistic possibilities of two and more languages. Stylistics of literary study regards the unity of means of fiction expressiveness, characteristic for literary fiction, the author, literary direction or the whole epoch.

2. All scholars agree that a well developed language, such as English or Russian, is streamed into several functional styles. Stylistics as a subject is linked with other linguistic sciences: lexicology, grammar, theoretical phonetics.

3. Basic ways of the development of stylistics in the country and foreign linguistics. In Russia stylistics is investigated by the following scholars: Galperin I.R., Kukharenko V.A. Stylistics was also investigated by the representatives of Prague school – V. Mathesius, T. Vachek, J. Havranek. They focused their attention on the priority of the situational appropriateness in the choice of language varieties for their adequate functioning.

 

Lecture 2

The Theme. The Category of Norm and its Role in Stylistics. Stylistic Differentiation of Language Means. Stylistic Colouring. Stylistic Meaning. Lexico-Phraseological Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices and their Functions.

The Aim. To make students acquire

1.General literary standard is called the "norm" in a narrow sense of the word. The study of the norm of "correct" speech which is engaged a special branch of stylistics – the normative stylistics or orthology. The essential difference of orthology from linguostylistics is that it does not only mark the variants of functioning of a language but also gives estimation of the analysed forms as "correct" and "non correct". The task of orthology is not only the analysis and finding out of semantic and stylistic non-correspondences in speech but also the study of conditions of the most expressiveness.

The norm of speech reflects the typical use of possibilities presented by the system due to participants, sphere, conditions and aims of communication

1 The norm of speech reflects the typical use of possibilities presented by the system due to participants, sphere, conditions and aims of communication.

2 The existance of the norm itself presupposes the *possibility of such oppositions as: structure-norm –individual speech

common people’s norm- dialect

neutral style- colloquial style - bookish style

literary correct speech- common speech

The norm includes the different subsystem of structure realization. The structure and the norm of a language is abstraction. The individual speech exits on the level of observation which for stylistics is represented by the speech work – the text. The text, in other words, is the only empiric material of stylistics. But one should remember that it is necessary to differentiate stylistic colouring which the word gets on the level of the norm, and stylistic function which the word gets on the level of individual speech and fulfils in the analyzed context.

Some scholars consider functional stylistics to be a branch of sociolinguistics since it studies the distinctive linguistic characteristics of smaller social groupings. the scholars suggest that various [ aspect] General literary standard is called the "norm" in a narrow sense of the word. The study of the norm of "correct" speech which is engaged in a special branch of stylistics – the normative stylistics or orthology. The essential difference of orthology from linguostylistics is that it does not only mark the variants of functioning of a language but also gives estimation of the analysed forms as "correct" and "non correct". The task of orthology is not only the analysis and finding out of semantic and stylistic non-correspondences in speech but also the study of conditions of the most expressiveness.

The norm of speech reflects the typical use of possibilities presented by the system due to participants, sphere, conditions and aims of communication speech realization can be grouped on the basis of some most general common phonetic characteristics. Thus such speech realizations as informative reading over radio, TV, a text produced behind the screen, lectures, repots, etc can be grouped together since they are monologues with reference to written text. From the point of view of functional stylistic they are referred to different styles: reading over the radio is qualified as a text belonging to the functional sphere publicists, while a lecture is referred to scientific functional style. The kinds of oral texts traditionally referred to different functional styles features. There could be brought about examples of the opposite kind. Text that are traditional3y referred to different functional styles turn out to have identical phonetic experiments carried out recently show that text belonging to different functional stoles [ an extract from prose - an extract from guide for tourists] read with identical pragmatic aim do not reveal any d5fference phone - stylistic aspect. Among the well- known classifications of phonetic styles we would like to mention the following two. One of them along to S. M. Gaiduchic. He distinguishes five phonetic styles: solemn [тождественный] scientific business [], everyday [] and familiar []. As we may of classifying phonetic styles is suggested by J. A. Dubviry who discriminates the following five styles informal ordinary, formal neutral, formal official, informal familiar and declamatorily. The division is based on different degrees of formality or rather familiarity between the speaker and the listener. Within each style subdivisions are observed. but as the author himself writes it is rather the principle of presenting the text for description and analysis because ` no theory has yet created a completely symmetrical classification of speech acts. There are five information styles singled out main varieties of the text generated in everyday communication of a modern man. They are as follows: 1 informational style 2. Academic style [ scientific]; 3 publicity style [oratorial]; 4 declamatory style [ artistic]; 5 conversational style [ familiar]. Any style with little exception is seldom realized in its pure form. Each generated text is likely to included phonetic characteristics of different styles. In such cases we talk about over lapping [ fusion] of style. This course will be a useful piece of knowledge for a learner because both the fearing student and the future enterprises of English need to develop the awareness of different phonetic styles of the language. He should be taught to analyze and describe the speaking habits of English people. He should learn to discover the patterns which different style varieties to explain as certain way and to determine what form of phonetic expression they may choose because the style should be as natural as dress and fit the time, the place and the [ nation] person. Besides he should be able to communicate with other people leaning the ability to communicate, the art of c6mmunication doing part of oral speech cannot be ignored in teaching and interpreting both a foreign language and a m6ther tongue.

1. Language system, functional system, individual system. The works of fiction literature and other texts serving for the material of the stylistic annalistic peculiarities in comparison with other exciting texts in the given language. It is necessary to establish terms for comparison.

2. The system of the given language on the whole and its norm serve as the terms of comparison. Not only the neutral literary standard but also the functional styles and dialects are understood by the norm of a language. The system of a language which is also called a structure of a language and its norm are not given in the evident observation and may be singled out by means of abstraction. Using the terms of medaling one may imagine the system of a language as an abstract model, the norm as a static model, and in dividable speech as the empiric observing material. The system of language which consists of phonetic, lexical and grammatical subsystems may be regarded as a structure. This system or structure of a language defines the general possibilities of its elements and the norm- that which really is used, accepted and understood in the given language community depending on the concrete conditions of communication. Yetis’ address the prunes. In the system of English the pronoun of the first person of the singular form means the speaker and one or more persons. According to the norm of English, e. g. in the scientific style of speech instead of `I` it is possible to use `we` or the so- called plural a [ the plural] tan tem of modesty: as an illustration let us take the language of Euclidian geometry and algebra. [A. Einstein]. In individual speech `we` may be mockingly or crassly used unsteady of the prona4n of the second person. The doctor can say to the patient: Come, come we must get our self all worker out must we? [ I. Thurber. The white Deer] the correctness of speech may be defined not by logical or atymolog5cal criteria but only by the usage in speech of the educated native speakers.

general literary standard is called the norm in a narrow sense of the word. into the study of the norm of `correct` speech which is engaged. A special branch of stylistics- the normat5ve styl5stis or ontology. The essential difference of ortology from lingustylictic is that it does not only mark the variants of functioning of a language but also gives estimation of the analyzed forms as `correct` and ` non- correct`. The task of ortology is not only the analysis and finding out of semantic and stylistic non- correspondences in speech but also the study of c6nditions of the most expressiveness.

 

Lecture 3

The Theme: Grammatical Expressive Means and Stylistic Tropes of the Change of the Structure of Sentences. Syntactical Expressive means and Stylistic Devices

The Aim: To stipulate in students the habits of recognition of syntactical expressive means

 

The term “syntactical whole” is used to denote a large unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, sense- forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with). A sentence from the stylistic point of view does not necessarily express one idea, it may express only part of one idea. Here is the complete syntactical whole: “Oleg glanced at his wife’s untouched plate. If you’ve finished we might stroll down. I think you ought to be starting.” she did not answer. She rose from the table. She went into her room to see that nothing had been forgotten and then side by side with him walked down the steps. (S. Maugham). Syntactical whole are to be found in particular in poetical style.

The paragraph.

A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked of by identation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. Paragraph structure in the belles-lettres and publicistic styles is strongly affected by the purport of the author. The length of a paragraph normally varies from eight to twelve sentence. The longer the paragraph is, the more difficult it is to follow the purport of the writer. the paragraphs in some styles, such as scientific, publicistic generally has a topic sentence, i.e. the sentence which embodies the main idea of the paragraph or which may be unterpreted as a key- sentence disclosing the chief thought of the writer. In the belles-lettres style the topic sentence may be placed in any part of the paragraph. It will depend on how the writer seeks to achieve the effect. The paragraph building in belles-lettres style (prose) generally lacks unity, and it is impossible to decide which sentence should be regarded as the topic one.

Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement.

Structural syntactical stylistic devices are in special relations with the intonation involved. Prof Peshkovsky points out that there is an interdependence between the intonation and other syntactical properties of the sentence which may be worded in the following manner: the more explicitly will be the intonation-pattern of the utterance (up to complete disappearance) and vice-versa, the stronger the intonation. e.g. ` Only after dinner did I make up my mind to go there ` and `I made up my mind to go there only after dinner`. `It was in Bucharest that the10-th. International congress of linguistics took place ` and ` the 10-th international congress of linguistics took place in Bucharest`. The second sentence in those pairs can be made emphatic only by intonation; the first sentence is made emphatic by means of the syntactical patterns: `Only after dinner did I ` and ` it was……. That.`

Stylistic inversion.

Word order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. It aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion. The following problems of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and English poetry.1. the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence. 2. the attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute). This model is often used when there is more than one attribute, for example: ` With fingers weary and worn` (Thomas Hood). `Once upon a midnight already`(E.A Poe)

3.the predicative is placed before the link verb and both are placed before the subject as in: ` Rude am I in my speech`…(Shakespeare)

4. the adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence, as in: ` Eagerly I wished the morrow.` (Poe) `My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall`. (Dryden)

5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, as in: ` In went Mr Pickwick` (Dickens) `Down dropped the breeze.` (Coolidge)

Detached construction.

Sometimes one of the secondary parts of the sentence by some specific construction of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to such parts of structures are called detached. But a detached phrase cannot rise to the rank of a primary member of the sentence – it always remains secondary from the semantic point of view, although structurally member e.g. `Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the poplars`. (J. Galsworthy) ` I want to go, he said, miserable (J. Galsworthy) ` She was lovely: all of her- delightful.` (T. Drieser). They are used mostly in belle- letters, prose style and mainly with words that have some explanatory function, e.g. `June stood in front, fending off this idle curiosity – a little bit of a thing, as somebody said, `all hair and spirit`… (I. Galsworthy). A variant of a detached construction is parenthesis.

Lecture 4

The theme: Expressive Peculiarities of Phonetic Means and Regulations of their Functioning in Different Spheres and Situations of Communication. The Style of Pronunciation. Stylistic Functions of Intonation.

The Aim: To teach students some regulations of phonetic means functioning.

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or not aesthetic value It is in combination with other words that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic impression, but this a matter of individual perception and feeling and subjective.

Onomatopoeia.

It is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines, tools, etc.), and by animals. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound. There are two verities of onomatopoeia direct and indirect. Direct imitates natural sounds, as ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, mew, ping-pong, roar and the like.

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometime called “echo- writing”. An example is:” And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (E.A. Poe) WHERE THE REPETITION OF THE SOUND ACTUALLY PRODUCED the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect onomatopoeia, unlike alliteration, demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling in the line above.

The same can be said of the sound [w] if it aims at reproducing, let us say, the sound of wind. The word wind must be mentioned, as in:

“ W henever the moon and stars are set,

W henever the w ind is high,

All night long in the dark and w et

A man goes riding by”. (R.S. Stevenson).

Lecture 5