Japan Stores Sunlight in Crystals

Japan has managed to store the Sun’s energy for 61 days in an important development in the use of solar power. Scientists have produced a stable chemical compound to store the energy.

The new compound takes the form of a yellow crystal. It changes its molecular structure when exposed to sunshine. When a small catalyst of silver was applied to it the substance reverted to its original molecular structure, generating heat at any required moment.

If produced in liquid form, the compound would retain the energy for 61 days without a boost of sunshine.

The temperature of the compound does not rise when solar energy is stored. The energy takes the form of molecular change at normal temperatures. In this way energy is not lost through the dissipation of heat.

Initial tests showed that 2.2 lb of the substance would conserve 92,000 calories. The research team said a solar heater with a surface of a square metre could store 85 million calories of energy a year. The compound could also be transported while it stored energy.

If the compound was produced in solid form, it could store energy for indefinite periods if the silver catalyst was not applied. However, it would have to be produced in a more impure liquid for practical use.

The new compound could be used to store energy for heating, cooling and eventually the generation of electrical power. There was little wastage and no pollution.

Forms and Functions of Architecture

Architecture is the art and the science of building. Without consideration of structural principles, materials, and social and economic requirements a building cannot take form, but unless aesthetic quality also is inherent in its form the building cannot be considered as a work of architecture.

From the very beginnings of architecture many skills, systems, and theories have been evolved for the construction of the buildings that have housed nations and generations of men in all their essential activities, and writing on architecture is almost as old as writing itself. The oldest book we have that sets forth the principles upon which buildings should be designed and aims to guide the architect is the work of Marcus Virtruvius Pollio, [ ‘ma:k s vit’ruvi s p ‘liou] written in the first century B.C.

Architecture is an art, its contemporary expression must be creative and consequently new. The heritage of the past cannot be ignored, but it must be expressed in contemporary terminology.

 

 

From the History of Sewerage

The first engineer who made a comprehensive study of metropolitan sewerage needs thus described the conditions of London basements and cellars in 1847: «There are hundreds, I may say thousands of houses in this metropolis which have no drainage whatever and the greater part of them have stinking overflowing cesspools. And there are also hundreds of streets, courts and alleys that have no sewers». After two outbreaks of cholera a royal commission was appointed to inquire into sanitary improvements of London. In 1855 Parliament passed an act for the better local management of the metropolis which laid the basis for the sanitation of London.

In the continent a marked progress in sewerage began in 1842 when a severe fire destroyed the old part of the city of Hamburg. The portion ruined was the oldest and it was decided to rebuild it according to the modern ideas of convenience. As a result Hamburg was the first city which had a complete systematic sewerage system throughout built according to modern ideas.

Forestry

The main directions in the economic development of Russia in forestry are: to improve the reproduction and utilization of forest resources, to use forest lands more intensively, to pay more attention to planting belts, to increase control over the rational use of forest resources and protect forests against fires, pests and diseases.

Graduates from the department for forest engineering work as production engineers in the sphere of logging mechanization, wood felling operations and transportation of timber by land and water.

In order to be an educated and qualified engineer it is necessary to study about 40 subjects of general education and engineering.

Russian engineering supplies the timber industry with various machinery: gasoline-motor-powered saws, branch cutters, loaders of original design, heavy-duty motor trains, semiautomatic lines with automated sorting transport belts.

The Sibirian Cedar

The Sibirian cedar grows to the east of the Urals. It has soft wood with beautiful texture. The world does not know better material for pencils.

One hectare of cedar forest annually produces up to five tonnes of nuts which are four times as expensive as cedar wood.

Cedar oil is as good as the best varieties of olive oil. The Sibirian cedar occupies 50 million hectares - a territory twice as large as Britain.

Larch

In the world there are 10-12 species of larch (according to some other sources there are 20 species).

The European larch grows usually upon dry uplands. It ranges from the mountains of Southern Siberia.

The average height of the tree is from 30 to 35 m. The wood of the larch is hard and rich in resin. Its bark contains tannin.

Larch is a very valuable tree. According to some source, the larch piles on which part of old Venice rests to this day, were brought from Russian forests.

The builders of English and Spanish ships considered larch to be the best material for planking (обшивка) ships.

Russian carpenters used larch for dams. Joiners (столяры) made mechanisms for flour-mills.

In addition, larch is a very beautiful tree. It grows in gardens and parks in many towns of our country.

 

 

Fir (spruce)

There are about 40 species of fir in the world. They occur in Europe, Asia and North America. In the forests of Russia there are 8 species of fir.

The firs that grow in the Northern and European parts of Russia are commonly 20 m to 50 m high. They have straight trunks up to 1 m in diameter.

The fir grows slowly during 10-15 years, then it grows faster. When it is 100-120 years old it again begins to grow slowly. It can reach the age of 300 years. Its wood is white, light and soft.

Especially beautiful is the species of fir that grows in the Caucasus. It grows in the mountains at the height of 1,500 meters or more. Some trees reach the age of 500 years. One big tree can yield up to 45 cubic meters of wood.

There are a few forest nurseries (plantations) in that region. Tree plantations produce 22 million seedlings (саженцы) of valuable species each year.

 

Список литературы

 

1. Айвазова А. Smart Book. Основы разговорного английского языка (американский вариант). - М.:КРОН-ПРЕСС, 1996.-288 с.

2. Андрианова Л.Н., Багрова Н.Ю. Книга для чтения заочных технических вузов. М.: Высш. шк., 1998.

3. Бгашев В.Н., др. Английский язык для машиностроительных специальностей вузов М.: Высш. шк., 1990.

4. Бурова И.И. The History of England. Parliamentary monarchy (История Англии. Парламентская монархия). – СПб.: Питер-Пресс, 1996. – 224 с. - (Серия «Just for Pleasure»).

5. Загонова Т.В. Английский язык. Страноведение: Учебное пособие. - Братск: БрИИ, 1995.- 142 с.

6. Качалова К.Н. Практическая грамматика английского языка М., ЮНВЕС, 1995.

7. Миронова О.Ф. Пособие по английскому языку для студентов II курса юридических факультетов. М., 1996.

8. Немчина Н.Н., Краснова И.Е. Знаете ли вы грамматику? Москва, 1996.

9. Нестерчук Г.В., Иванова В.М. США и американцы. – М.: Высш. шк.,1998. – 238 с.: ISBN 985-06-0361-5.

10. Новицкая Т.М., Кучин Н.Д. Практическая грамматика английского языка. – М., 1983.

11. Сатинова В.Ф. Читаем и говорим о Британии и британцах. – 2-е изд., стереотип. – М.: Высш.шк., 1997. – 255 с.: ISBN 985-06-0333-x.

12. Синявская Е.В., Улановская Э.С. Учебник английского языка для технических вузов. – М.: Высш. шк., 1990.

13. Хведченя Л.В., Васючкова О.И., Елисеева и др. Английский язык для студентов заочной формы обучения (гуманитарные специальности): Учебное пособие. 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М.: Высш.шк., 1998. – 416 c.

14. Английский язык. Программа, методические указания и контрольные задания для студентов-заочников высших учебных заведений (факультетов) неязыковых специальностей. 2-е изд.,
испр. – М.: Высш. шк., 1989.

15. Англо-русские словари.

16. Отраслевые англо-русские словари.

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ

Фонетика. Правила чтения

Фонетика

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn

Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

 

Буквы

Гласные: A,a [ei], E,e[i:], I,i[ai], O,o[ou], U,u[ju:], Y,y[wai].

Согласные: B,b[bi:], C,c[si:], D,d[di:], F,f[ef], G,g[dzi:],H,h[eit ƒ]

J,j[dzei], K,k[kei],L,l[el], M,m[em], N,n[en], P,p[pi:],

Q,q[kju:], R,r[a:], S,s [es], T,t [ti:], V,v[vi:],

W,w[‘dž blju:], X,x[eks], Z,z [zed].

 

Звуки

Согласные:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g],[f],[v],[T],[d],[s],[z],[ƒ],[z],

[tƒ],[dz],[h],[j],[w],[l],[r] [m],[n],[ ]

 

Гласные.: краткие: [i],[e],[æ],[L],[u], [É], [ c]

долгие: [i:],[a:],[]:],[u:],[ c:],

дифтонги: [ei],[ai],[au],[]i],[ou], [ic], [ ec], [uc]

 

Особенности английской орфографии - 26 букв, 44 звука.

 

Типы ударного слога

I - открытый - оканчивается в произношении на гласный звук, а в написании на гласную букву, например:me,by.

II- закрытый - оканчивается в произношении на согласный звук, а в написании на согласную букву, например: at, pen.

III – гл. + R - слог, в котором ударная гласная прикрыта буквой «r», например: car, or, her, sir, fur.

IV – гл. + R + гл. -слог, где за буквой «r», которой прикрыта ударная

гласная, следует «немая» или другая читаемая гласная, например: care, here, fire, during.

 

 

A[ei]   O[ou]   I[ai]   Y[wai]   E[i:]   U[ju:]

[ei] fable fate [ou] no note [ai] pie pine [ai] by type [i:] me meet [ju:] [u:] due rule

[æ] fat [É] not [i] pin [i] gym [e] met [L] cut

[a:] far farm []:] nor north [c:] fir firm [c:] Byrd [c:] her term [c:] cur turn

[c] fare daring []:] more snoring [aic ] fire firing [aic] tyre tyrant [ic ] here hero [(j)uc] cure during

 

В английском языке имеется также условно-открытый слог, оканчивающийся в произношении на согласный звук, а в написании на гласную букву «е», которая не читается («немая»). Например: Eve [i:v], Kate [keit], spoke [spouk], time [taim], use [ju:z]. Немая «е» указывает, что предшествующий слог открытый и гласная в нем имеет алфавитное чтение.

Сводная таблица чтения согласных букв

Буква	Какие звуки передает	Пример
Вв Cc   Dd Ff Gg     Hh Jj Kk Ll	[b] [s](перед e, i, y) [k](перед o, u, a), согл. [d] [f] [® ] (перед e, i, y) [g] (перед o, u, a), согл.   [h] [® ] [k] [l]	bed, bad face cat, cup, cry do [du:] friend large gun, go, green Исключения: get, girl, give he jim, jam book lamp

 

Mm Nn Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Vv Ww Xx Zz

[m] [n] [p] [kw] [r] [s] [t] [v] [w] [ks] [z]

my no, nine pen quick red yes ten five well box size

 

Запомните следующие правила:

Þ В конце слов английские звонкие согласные никогда не оглушаются.

Например: ebb [eb], bag [bæg]

Þ Английские согласные перед любыми гласными произносятся твердо.

Þ Глухие согласные перед звонкими не озвончаются.

Например: [‘i gli ‘ buks], в конце слов они произносятся энергично и

четко.