The Role of Science in Manufacture

Future improvements in productivity are largely dependent on the application of science to manufacturing. This depends in turn on the availability of large numbers of scientifically trained engineers. The higher schools can serve the needs of industry in two ways: by performing basic research and by training well-qualified engineers in the manufacturing field.

There is a growing need for engineers who are familiar with the fundamental problems in metal processing and manufacturing. In the near future many of the engineers will be recent university graduates. A few will come through courses of study in industry. Others, having a basic engineering knowledge, will continue additional studies at colleges to prepare themselves for work in industry. Therefore, an engineer does not finish his education when he receives his diploma, particularly in the fields of interest to tool engineers who are to study new developments constantly.

There are numerous ways in which industry and education can cooperate on problems of common interest. Scientists and research are engaged in work that is intended to provide a scientific approach to many purely industrial problems. These scientists and engineers can make a real contribution to engineering education or academic research. They can, for example, teach advanced engineering courses and they can actively participate in basic and applied research.

Similarly, large and complicated projects of new technologies could well be handled by institute researchers working on practical applications. This would often provide the most efficient approach to the solution of processing problems.

 

 

Four Industrial Revolutions

The history of mechanical engineering goes back to the time when the man first tried to make machines. We can call the earlier rollers, levers and pulleys, for example, the work of mechanical engineering.

Mechanical engineering, as we understand it today, starts from the first Industrial Revolution.

People have labelled as «revolutions» three episodes in the industrial history of the world and now we are entering the fourth.

The first industrial revolution took place in England between 1760 and 1840. Metal became the main material of the engineer instead of wood, and steam gave man great reserves of power. This power could drive not only railway engines and ships but also the machines which built them.

In the second revolution, from 1880 to 1920, electricity was the technical driving force. It provided power for factories that was easier and cheaper to control than steam. It was marked also by the growing importance of science-based industries such as chemicals and electrical goods, and the use of scientifically-designed production methods such as semi-automatic assembly lines.

The third industrial revolution coincided with the advent of automation-in its inflexible form. In this revolution, the main features were advances in the control of manufacturing processes so that things could be made more cheaply, with greater precision and (often) with fewer people. And this change, which occurred around the middle of this century, also featured a new machine that was to greatly influence the world, the electronic computer.

What is the fourth industrial revolution?

The fourth industrial revolution will be characrerized by automated machines that are versatile and programmable and can make different things according to different sets of computer instructions. It will be characterized by flexible, automated machinery, the most interesting example of which are robots.

 

 

The Wankel Engine

The Wankel engine is a form of heat engine that has a rotary piston.In other words,instead of going up and down the Wankel piston rotates in the cylinder.Boht cylinder and piston are quite different in shape from those of conventional engines. The Wankel piston is tringular with curved sides, the cylinder is roughly oval in shape. The piston has an inner dore which is liked through an eccentrik gear to the output shaft. The other end of the dore is toothed and engaged with a stationary gear fixed to the cylinder end. Their arrangement ensures that the piston follows an elliptical path round the cylinder so that the apexes of the piston, which carry gastight seals, are always in contact with the inside surface of the cylinder

The piston thus forms thrree crescent-shaped spaces between itself and the cylinder wall, which vary in size as the piston rotates. Fuel enters the cylinder through the inlet port when one of these spaces is increasing in size. The fuel trapped in this section is then compressed by the turning piston and ignited by the sparking plug. The expanding gases subject the piston to a twisting moment which makes the piston revolve further until the exhaust gases escape through the exhaust port. A fresh charge is then induced into the cylinder. Meanwhile the same process is being repeated in the other two spaces between the piston and the cylinder.

The Wankel engine has many advantages over the reciprocating piston engine. Fewer moving parts are necessary because it produces a rotary movement using a connecting rod and a crankshaft. Because of this rotary movement it has vibration. In addition it has no valves, it is smaller and lighter than conventional engines of the same power, and it runs economically on diesel and several other fuels.

Engine

An engine produces power by burning air and fuel. The fuel is stored in a fuel. The fuel tank is connected to a fuel pipe. The fuel pipe carries the fuel to a fuel pump. The fuel pump is connected to the carburettor. The fuel pump pumps the fuel into the carburettor. In the carburettor the fuel is mixed with air. The fuel and air are drawn into the engine cylinder by the piston. Then the fuel and air are compressed by the piston and ignited by the spark plug. They burn and expand very quickly and push the piston down. Then the power is produced. The burned fuel and air are expelled from the cylinder by the piston.

The flow of gases into and out of the cylinder is controlled by two valves. There is an inet valve allowing fresh fuel mixture into the cylinder and an exhaust valve which which allows the burnt gases to escape.

There are two clasic engine operating cycles:

the four-stroke cycle;

the two-stroke cycle.

The complete four-stroke cycle comprises:

the induction stroke (the piston moves downwards):

the compression stroke(the piston moves upwards);

the power stroke (the piston moves downwards);

the exhaust stroke (the pistone moves upwards).

Machines and Work

Defined in the simplest terms a machine is a device that uses force to accomplish something. More technically, it is a device that transmits and changes force or motion into work. This definition implies that a machine must have moving parts. A machine can be very simple, like a block and tackle to raise a heavy weight, or very complex, like a railroad locomotive or the mechanical systems used for industrial processes.

A machine receives input from an energy source and transforms it into output in the form of mechanical or electrical energy. Machines whose input is a natural source of energy are called prime movers. Natural sources of energy include wind, water, steam, and petroleum. Windmills and waterwheels are prime movers; so are the great turbines driven dy water or steam that turn the generators that produce electricity; and so are internal combustion engines that use petroleum products as fuel. Electric motors are not prime movers, since an alternating current of electricity which supplies most electrical energy does not exist in nature.

Terms like work, force, and power are frequently used in mechanical engineering, so it is necessary to define them precisely. Force is an effort that results in motion or physical change. If you use your muscles to lift a box you are exerting force on that box. The water which strikes the blades of a turbine is exerting force on those blades, thereby setting them in motion.

In a technical sense work is the combination of the force and the distance through which it is exerted.

To produce work, a force must act through a distance. If you stand and hold a twenty-pound weight for any length of time, you may get very tired, but you are not doing work in an engineering sense because the force you exerted to hold up the weight was not acting through a distance. However, if you raised the weight, you would be doing work.

Power is another term used in special technical sense in speking of machines. It is the rate at which work is performed.

In the English-speaking countries, the rate of doing work is usually given in terms of horsepower, often abbreviated hp. You will remember that expression resulted from the desire of inventor James Watt to describe the work his steam engines performed in terms that his customers could easily understand.After much experimentation,he settled on rate of 33,000 footpounds per minute as one horsepower.

In the metrick system power in terms of watts and kilowatts.The kilowatt,a more widely used term, equals a thousand watts or approximately 1 1/3 horsepower in the English system.

 

Components of the Automobile

Automobiles are trackless, self-propelled vehicles for land transportation of people or goods, or for moving materials. There are three main types of automobiles. They are passenger cars, buses and lorries (trucks).The automobile consists of the following components: a)the engine; b)the framework: c)the mechanism that transmits the power-engine to the wheels; d)the body.

Passenger cars are, as a rule, propelled by an internal combustion engine. They are distinguished by the horse-power of the engine, the number of cylinders on the engine and the type of the body, the type of tpansmission, wheeelbase, weight and overall length.

There are engines of various designs. They differ in the number of cylinders, their position, their operating cycle, valve mechanism, ignition and cooling system.

Most automobile engines have six or eight cylinders, although some four-, twelve-, and sixteen-cylinder engines, are used. The activities that take place in the engine cylinder can be divided into four stages which are called strokes. The four strokes are: intake, compression, power and exhaust. «Stroke» refers to the piston movement. The upper limit of piston movement is called top dead centre, TDC. The lower limit of piston movement is called bottom dead centre, BDC.A stroke constitutes piston movement from TDC to BDC or from BDC to TDC. In other words, the piston completes a stroke each time it changes the direction of motion.

Engine Operation

An automobile, powered by a petrol engine, begins to operate when the driver turns a flywheel connected to the engine crankshaft. As the crankshaft revolves, a mixture of fuel and air is drawn from a carburetor into the engine cylinders. The ignition system provides the electric sparks that ignite this mixture. The resultant explosions of the mixture turn the crankshaft, and the engine starts moving. By regulating the flow of the fuel and air with a throttle, the driver controls the rotational speed of the crankshaft.

Cooling, electrical ignition and lubrication systems are of great importance for the good performance of a car. The lights, radio and heater add to the flexibility, comfort and convenience of the car. The indicating devices keep the driver informed as to engine temperature, oil pressure, amount of fuel, and battery charging rate.

Brakes are of drum and disk types. The steering system consists of a manually operated steering wheel which is connected by a steering column to the steering gear from which linkages run to the front wheels. It is difficult to turn the steering wheel, and special hydraulic power mechanisms are used to lessen this effort. Suitable springings are used against shocks. These are leaf springs, coil springs, torsion bars and air suspensions.

 

Disel Engines

The oil engine (diesel engine)is also a form of internal combustion engine. It has the usual arrangement of cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crank, inlet and exhaust valves as we find in petrol engine. In place of carburetor and sparking plug it has an injection pump and a fuel injection valve (injector).Unlike spark-ignition engines it uses the heat of compression to fire the fuel and is, therefore, called compression-ignition engine.

It utilizes a fuel known as diesel oil, which is forced in the form of a fine spray through a suitable nozzle directly into the combustion space. No mixture of fuel and air is introduced into the cylinder, the compression-ignition (CI)engine draws in pure air only. This air is then compressed by the ascending piston to a high pressure. As a result of it the temperature of the air is raised considerably so that the fuel oil injected into the cylinder ignites rapidly. Thereafter the gaseous products expand providing the energy for the power stroke.

The high-output oil engines are nearly all of two-stroke type. The charge is filled into the cylinder by means of a blower which assists both the intake and exhaust processes. One cycle completed within one revolution, i.e. in two strokes-compression and expansion.

 

Air-cooled Engines

All vehicle engines are air-cooled to some degree. Even in water-cooled engines heat is transmitted first from cylinder to water and afterwards, in the radiator, from water to air. This method of cooling is not difficult to accomplish, because the heat taken off the hot cylinder walls by water can be distributed without difficulty upon the large cooling surface of the radiator, and so easy transmission of air is made possible.

Reciprocating engines used in aircraft are almost entirely air-cooled. Aircaft engines cooled by air are manufactured today in sizes ranging from 50 to 3500 hp and they superseded water-cooled engines. The principal advantages of air-cooled aircraft engines are low weight, and greater reliadilim reliability in operation. Modern motor-cycles are also designed almost exclusively with air-cooled engines.

New designs of air-cooled vehicle engines are notable for their easy maintenance, reliability and economical operation.

 

 

Power Engineering

Volta made his experimental cell in 1800,producing for the first time a steady reliable electric current. During the nineteenth century, the development of practical applications of electrical energy advanced rapidly. The first major uses of electricity were in the field of communications-first for the telegraph and the telephone. They used not only electric current but also electromagnetic effects.

Thomas Edison’s invention of the electric light bulb was perhaps the most momentous development of all, but not because it was such a unique invention. It was momentous because it led to the creation of an electric power system which has since reached into nearly every corner of the world. Actually, other people were working simultaneously on the same problem, and Edison’s claim to the invention was disputed. Perhaps Edison’s most important claim to fame is his pioneering work in engineering, which helped to provide for New York City in 1882.

The application of electricity has grown to the point where most of us lead electrified life, surrounded by a variety of devices that use electric energy. Less visible, but probably more important, are the thousands of ways industry has put electric energy to work. The direct-current machine is one of the most important ways.

Turbines

The turbine is a machine for generating mechanical power from the energy of the stream of fluid. Steam, hot air or gaseous products of combustion, and water are the most widely used working fluids.

A steam turbine may be defined as a form of heat engine in which the energy of the steam is transformed into kinectic energy. It consists of the following fundamental parts: a) a casing or shell containing stationary blades: c) a set of bearings; d) a governor and valve system for regulating the speed and power of the turbine. The main types of steam turbines are axialflow turbines and radial-stage turbines.

The reciprocating steam engine came into its own during the nineteenth century, when it found greatest use in mills, locomotives and pumping systems. The modern steam turbine, developed last century, is rapidly replacing the reciprocating engine for large installations. Gas is used as the working fluid in gas turbines. The basic theory underlying their design and their operating characteristics is identical with that for steam turbines. The energy of water is converted into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft in hydraulic turbines. Power may be developed from water by three fundamental processes: by action of its weight, of its pressure or of its velocity; or by a combination of any or all three.

 

 

Boilers

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water, under pressure, is transformed into steam by the application of heat. Open vessels and those generating steam at atmospheric pressure are not considered to be boilers. The furnace converts the chemical energy of the fuel into heat. The function of the boiler is to transfer this heat to the water in the efficient manner.

Progress in steam-boiler development has been rapid. The first boilers were very crude affairs, as contrasted with our present-day standards. The greatest number of contributions have been made in the last half century. The field of application is diversified. Boilers are used for heating, supplying steam for processes, furnishing steam to operate engines, etc.

Maintaining the correct boiler water level is the most important duty of the boiler operator. It is of the utmost importance that the manufacturer supply suitable and reliable devices for indicating the water level. Coal as well as liquid and gaseous fuels are used for boiler firing. The ideal boiler must be of correct design, sufficient steam and water space, and good water circulation.

 

 

Electric motors

There is a wide variety of d.c. motors. There are shunt motors, series motors, synchronous motors, induction motors, single-,two-,and three-phase motors. They are used to drive various machines.

Direct-current motors are of three principal kinds, and are named according to the manner in which their field coils are connected to the armature. They are named respectively: series, shunt, and compound.

In the series motors the field windings and armature are connected in series with each other. All the current which passes through the armature passes through the field coils. The field windings are therefore composed of a few turns of thick wire. Starting under heavy load, a series motor will take a large current to provide the huge torque required.

The field coils of shunt motors are connected direct across the brushes, hence they have the full voltage of the mains applied to them. The shunt motor may by called a constant speed motor, and is suitable for driving machine tools, lathes, wood-working machines and any machines requiring a steady speed.

A compound motor has both shunt and series field windings and therefore partakes of the nature of both types of motors.

 

 

A. C. Electric Motor

Motors for alternating-current circuits may by either single-phase or polyphase (two-or three-phase).They may again be divided into two kinds, named respectively:1.Synchronous;2.Non-or asynchronous, ordinarily called induction motors.

The most widely used a.c. motor is the induction motor. It has two main parts: a)the stationary winding or stator, which sets up a rotating magnetic field, and b)the rotating part of the motor, i.e. the rotor. The rotor of a commercial a.c. motor consists of an iron core with large copper bars placed in sets around the circumference and connected at both ends to copper rings. This is called a squirrel-cage rotor. When a rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, a large current is induced in it.

A.c. motors are exactly similar in construction to a.c. generators and may be called inverted alternators, since the same machine may be used as either a generator or motor.

Synchronous motors are very suitable for large powers, where the machine can be started up without load, and once started run for long periods.

For supplying direct-current power networks, the supply comes first from an alternating-current source and is converted to direct current by synchronous convertors or motor-generator sets.

 

New Energy from Old Sources

The resources of fossil fuel which made the industrial revolution possible and have added to the comfort and convenience of modern life were formed over a period of 600-million years. We will consume them in a few hundred years at current rates.

But energy is available to use in practically unlimited quantities from other sources. Large amounts of energy can be received from ocean tides and currents, from huge underground steam deposits, from the power of wind and from the heat of the Sun.

Most solar-heating systems coming on the market use a black surface to absorb the Sun’s heat. Engineers cover the surface with glass which lets in the rays, but holds heat. The heat is transferred to water that runs through small pipes. The hot water is then circulated through the house. It is estimated that 40 million new buildings will be heated by solar energy by the year 2000.

The solar cell is another way to produce power from the Sun. It converts sunlight directly into electricity. These cells are used with great success in the space program, but remain far too expensive for wide-spread application.

Putting the wind to work researchers are showing great interest in the age-old windmill. Several big companies are now studying windmills ranging from 100 to 2,000 kilowatts. The smallest would provide sufficient electricity to power several homes, the largest could provide electricity to a small village.