Модальные глаголы (Modal verbs)

УДК 811.111:631.9(075.8)

ББК 81.432.1

К82

Рецензенты:

З. И. Гурьева – зав. кафедрой английского языка

в профессиональной сфере, профессор, д-р филол. наук

 (Кубанский государственный университет);

М. А. Батурьян – доцент кафедры иностранных языков,

канд. филол. наук (Кубанский государственный

аграрный университет)

Криворучко И. С.

К82 Курс английского языка для специальностей агрономического профиля: учеб. пособие / И. С. Криворучко, Е. В. Чуйкова. – Краснодар: КубГАУ, 2017. – 110 с.

 

ISBN

 

Учебное пособие разработано в соответствии с программой по иностранным языкам для неязыковых вузов. В пособии представлен грамматический материал и задания, способствующие  закреплению таких тем, как страдательный залог, неличные формы глагола, согласование времен, а также тексты по специальности для перевода и развития навыков устной речи.

Предназначено для студентов-бакалавров агрономических специальностей.

УДК 811.111:631.5(075.8)

ББК 81.432.1

 

 

© Криворучко И. С.,
Е. В. Чуйкова, 2017

© ФГБОУ ВО «Кубанский

государственный аграрный

университет имени

ISBN                                                       И. Т. Трубилина», 2017

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

 

Учебное пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентов-бакалавров агрономического факультета, обучающихся по специальности «Агрономия», владеющих английским языком в объеме средней школы и продолжающих изучение языка в вузе.

Целью пособия является развитие речевой профессиональной деятельности на английском языке, а именно,  научить обучающихся читать, понимать без словаря тексты на английском языке по специальности, привить навыки перевода текстов со словарем, не испытывая трудностей при встрече со сложными грамматическими явлениями (страдательным залогом, неличными формами глаголов, модальными конструкциями и т. д.), и подготовить к устному сообщению по изученной теме.

Учебное пособие состоит из 12 уроков, в каждом из которых имеется грамматический материал с упражнениями для закрепления, основной текст с лексическими упражнениями, словарь-минимум, текст для дополнительной работы по указанной теме. Лексические и речевые упражнения ориентированы на подготовку кратких сообщений по темам, их обсуждение, переводы.

 

 

Unit 1

Grammar Revision: Modal verbs

Text A:                 Nature and Importance of Plants

Text B:                 Life is impossible without plants

Отличительные свойства модальных глаголов

1.Не имеют окончания - s в 3-м лице единственного числа настоящего времени. He can do it. He may take it. He must go there. He ought to help him. Need he do it?

2.Не имеют неличных форм (инфинитива, герундия и причастия).

3.Не употребляются как отдельный член предложения – простое глагольное сказуемое, но только в сочетании с еще одним, не модальным, глаголом в форме инфинитива без частицы to (кроме ought и иногда need), образуя составное глагольное сказуемое. I must go there. Я должен пойти туда. You needn't do it. Вам не нужно делать этого. Но: You ought to help him. Вам следовало бы помочь ему.

4.Вопросительная и отрицательная формы модальных глаголов образуются без вспомогательного глагола: в вопросительных предложениях модальный глагол ставится перед подлежащим, в отрицательных – после него ставится отрицание not. Can you do it? May I take it? Must he go there? Ought he to help him? Need he do it? He ought not to help him. He need not do it.

5. Не имеют формы прошедшего времени (кроме can – could, may – might) и аналитических форм (будущего времени, продолженного вида, перфектных форм и форм страдательного залога). В случае необходимости вместо отсутствующих форм используются эквивалентымодальных глаголов.

 

Use the modal verbs must (должен), can (могу, умею), may (можно, разрешено), should (следует / совет /), ought to (следует / упрек /) to complete the sentences. There may be more than one possible answer.

1. It’s too far to walk from here to the station.. You... take a taxi. 2. Sarah got the job because she... speak five languages. 3. The windows are dirty. I... clean them. 4. You... use a dictionary. 5. I like this hotel room. You... see the lake from the window. 6. It’s a good film. You... see it. 7. He... take my book. 8. We... go to the bank today. We have no money. 9. When you are driving, you…wear a seat belt. 10. We…see the lake from our window. 11. If you have time, you... visit the museum. It’s very interesting. 12. I... come and see you tomorrow. 13. She... use this "computer program. 14. Your salary is very low. You... look for another job. 15. Mary is a very interesting person. You... meet her. 16. Take an umbrella with you when you go out. It... rain later. 17. Sandra... drive but she hasn’t got a car. 18. Tomorrow the game is very important for us. We... win. 19. Students... bring textbooks into the examination room. 20. It’s late and you’re very tired. You... go to bed.

 

Text A

Vocabulary list

importance – важность, значение

to be dependent (upon) – зависеть от

size – размер, величина

either … or – или … или

directly (indirectly) – прямо, косвенно

to exist – существовать

species – вид

to expect – ожидать

to vary (in) – изменяться, различаться

variable – изменчивый

to require – требовать(ся)

requirement – требование, потребность

usefulness – польза

as to – что касается

for instance – например

as well as – также как и

low – низкий, нижний

to distinguish – различать

according to – согласно, в соответствии

similar – подобный

similarity – сходство, подобие

source – источник

in turn– в свою очередь

value – ценность

valuable – ценный

 

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

either directly or indirectly, plant kingdom, variable forms, usefulness to man, to be made up of only one cell, with the aid of a microscope, for instance, redwood trees, the lowest forms of plant life, according to similarity of parts, valuable food products.

 

Text B

Unit 2

Grammar Revision: Comparatives and Superlatives

Text A:                     Crop Plants and Environment

Text B:                      Plants and Nature

Text A

Vocabulary list

under conditions – при условиях, в условиях

to do well (do best) – растут хорошо (лучше всего)

a frost-free period – безморозный период

moderate – умеренный

cotton – хлопок

sorghum – сорго, просо

soybean – соя

favorable (unfavorable) – благоприятный, неблагоприятный

rye – рожь

humidity – влажность

long-day plants – растения длинного дня

short-day plants – растения короткого дня

to belong to – принадлежать к

millet – просо

sunflower – подсолнечник

buckwheat – гречиха

respiration – дыхание

carbon dioxide – углекислый газ

 

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russia:

crops well adapted to the region, to produce high yields, to grow under cool or moderate conditions, to differ in the length of the growing season, a frost-free period, average annual rainfall, favorable environmental conditions, short-day plants, a very essential factor, a factor influencing the growth, to be affected by the length of the day, small grains.

 

Crop Plants and Environment

The conditions in which an organism lives are known as environment. All plants require favorable environmental conditions for their better growth and development. Crops that are not well adapted to the region where they are cultivated will not produce high yields. In crop selection climate is the most important environmental factor. The crops which grow best under relatively cool or moderate conditions include wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes, sugar beets, red clover, and many grasses.

Corn, cotton, sorghum, rice, soybeans do best and differ in the length of the growing season required for the optimum development. A frost-free period less than 125 days is unfavorable for most crops. Another factor influencing the growth of plants is humidity that is why the average annual rainfall is a very essential characteristic of an area. Light is necessary for photosynthesis – the process by which plant food is manufactured. Life processes of many plants are influenced by the relative length of day and night. Long-day plants require long days for their better growth, while short-day plants produce flowers and fruit when the days are short. Most small grains belong to the group of long-day crops, among short-day crops are corn, sorghum, rice, millet and soybeans. There are also crops which are not affected by the length of day, these are cotton, sunflower and buckwheat.

Air is an important environmental factor too. It supplies carbon dioxide for plant growth and oxygen for respiration as well as for chemical and biological processes in the soil.

 

3. Find in the text the following word combinations:

окружающая среда, расти лучше всего при прохладных условиях, продолжительность вегетационного периода, среднегодовые осадки, растения длинного дня, растения короткого дня, образовывать цветки и плоды, кислород для дыхания, относительная продолжительность дня и ночи.

Text B

Plants and Nature

Nature has always served to man. But with the development of civilization man's interference in nature began to increase. The pollution of air and the world's ocean, destruction of the ozone layer is the result of man's careless interaction with nature.

Environmental protection is a problem of global concern. Plant formations and their environment are natural resources which man always used and uses now.

Animals and man will not live without plants because the cycle of nature links them. Plants also play a very important part in conservation and protection of soil, water and animals. Crop plants have not always been productive and useful as they are today. Long ago they were growing wild. As civilization progressed, man began studying plants more carefully. He discovered many of the new functions of plants, their structure and requirements for growth.

Soon plant science appeared and great progress in the improvement and growing of plants followed. Compared to the long history of plants on the Earth the plant breeders have improved plants for only short time, but in this short period they have contributed much to agriculture.

By selecting the best types, man is able to bring about improvements in a few years that would require thousands of years if left to nature.

 

Unit 3

Grammar revision: Participle I–II

Text A:               Plant, its Parts and their Functions

Text B:              Plant

Text A

Vocabulary list

reproductive part – органы размножения

vascular tubes – сосудистые канальцы

extent – степень, мера

to a considerable extent – в значительной степени (мере)

clover – клевер

embryo – зародыш

root – корень

stem – стебель

leaf (leaves) – лист, листья

to anchor – закреплять, удерживать

to manufacture – производить, образовывать

vein – жилка

shape – форма

compound – сложный

poplar tree – тополь

seed – семя

flower – цветок

raw materials – сырьё 

 

Text B

Plant

Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include such organisms as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses and algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350 000 species of plants. Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called photosynthesis.

About 350 000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns exist currently. Some 287 655 species had been identified, of which 258 650 are flowering plant, 16 000 bryophytes, 11 000 ferns and 8 000 green algae.

Most of the solid material in plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through a process known as photosynthesis, most plants use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, plus water into simple sugars. Parasitic plants, on the other hand, use the resources of its host to grow. Chlorophyll, a green-colored, magnesium-containing pigment is essential to this process; it is generally present in plant leaves, and often in other plant parts as well. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots for respiration.

The genotype of a plant affects its growth. Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as temperature, available light, and available nutrients in the soil.

Human cultivation of plants of agriculture is the bases of human civilization. Much of human nutrition depends on land plants either directly or indirectly.

Notes:

lifespan – продолжительность жизни

bryophytes – бриофиты

ferns – папоротники

mosses – мхи

host – растение-хозяин

 

Unit 4

Grammar Revision: Passive Voice

Text A:               Flower

Text B:               Functions of Flowers

 

Образование пассивного залога

Для того, чтобы получить форму глагола в пассивном залоге, необходим вспомогательный глагол to be в соответствующем времени, лице и числе и причастие прошедшего времени (Participle II) значимого глагола:

This building will be demolished next month. – Это здание будет снесено в следующем месяце.

My dog has been stolen. – Мою собаку украли.

В отрицательных предложениях частица not ставится после вспомогательного глагола, а если их несколько, то после первого из них:

He has not been seen anywhere. – Его нигде не видели.

В вопросительных предложениях вспомогательный глагол (или первый из них) выносится на место перед подлежащим:

Was your wallet stolen? – Ваш бумажник был украден?

Таблица 3 – Временные формы глагола в страдательном залоге (Passive Form) To be + Participle II

Инфинитив	Simple (to be asked)	Continuous	Perfect (to have been asked)
Время
Present	Am /asked Is /asked Are /asked	Am /being asked Is /being asked Are /being asked	Have/been asked Has/been asked
Past	Was /asked Were /asked	Was /being asked Were /being asked	Had been asked
Future	Shall (I, we)/ be asked Will /be asked	–	Shall /have been asked Will /have been asked

Пассивный залог не может быть использован во временах группы Perfect Continuous и времени Future Continuous.

Text A

Vocabulary list

to precede – предшествовать

to assure – обеспечить, гарантировать

yield of seeds – урожай семян

sepal – чашелистик

petal – лепесток

stamen – тычинка

pistil – пестик

floral parts – части цветка

complete flower – полный цветок

incomplete flower – неполный цветок

to lack – отсутствовать, недоставать

to involve (in) – вовлекать, участвовать

to comprise – составлять

leaflike – листоподобный, похожий на лист

are alike in that – похожи в том, что

unlike – в отличие

corolla – венчик, корона

pollen – пыльца

pollination – опыление

essential – важный, существенный

fertilization – оплодотворение

style – столбик  

stigma – рыльце

ovary – завязь

egg-cell – яйцеклетка

self-pollinated – самоопыляемый

proximity – близость

cross-pollinated – перекрестноопыляемый

 

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

to produce flowers, seed production, in addition, reproduction process, a complete flower, an incomplete flower, common cereals, a swollen base, self-pollinated flowers, pollen grains, reproductive organs, to be necessary for fertilization, close proximity of stamens and stigma. 

 

Flower

All seed plants are alike in that they all produce flowers. The flower is the part of the plant which is formed for seed production. A seed is always preceded by a flower. The seeds are the means by which most plants reproduce and in addition they are sources of food for man and feed for livestock. Consequently, it is highly important that the flower develop and function properly so as to assure a good yield of seeds. If you want to understand how plants produce seeds, it is necessary that you be familiar with the parts of the flower and the role of each in the reproduction process.

Parts of flower A complete flower is made up of four principal parts, namely a) sepals, b) petals, c) stamens and d) a pistil. The number and position of the floral parts vary in different species and it frequently happens that one or more of them is missing, in which case the flower is said to be incomplete.

The flowers of the small grain lack both petals and sepals, and thus they are incomplete.

Neither sepals nor petals are directly involvedin seed production. The former comprise the outermost part of the flower, protecting and supporting the other parts. They are usually green and leaf-like. Sometimes, however, they are brightly colored rather than green but it is not true for common cereals. The petals are located immediately to the inside of the sepals and unlike the latter they are generally bright-colored but it is not true for grasses, including the common cereals. When taken together the petals are referred to as the corolla. The two remaining parts of the flower, namely, the stamens and the pistil, form the reproductive organs of the flower and are both absolutely essential for reproduction and seed production. It is in the stamens that the pollen grains which are necessary for fertilization are produced. The pistil should be looked for in the center of the flower. It consists of the style bearing on its top the stigma and a swollen base which is referred to as ovary. Within the ovary there are the egg-cells.

Pollination and Fertilization For fertilization to occur the egg-cells must be fertilized by the pollen grains. The transfer of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of the pistil is spoken of as pollination. In self-pollinated flowers pollination results from close proximity of stamens and stigma. In some cases pollination occurs before the flower opens, as in most of the cereals and in some grasses; as a more general rule, however, flowers are pollinated from the flowers of other plants of the same species. Such plants are spoken of as cross-pollinated. Pollination is effected in some plants by wind while others have insect pollination. After the pollen has been transferred to the stigma some further processes take place which result in the fertilization of the egg-cells. The latter then develop into seeds.

Notes:

In addition – кроме того, к тому же, вдобавок

so as (to + Inf.) – для того, чтобы

(to) be involved – участвовать в, быть связанным с

… but it is not true for common cereals – но этого не бывает у обычных злаковых

(to) be referred to as – называться; упоминаться как

 (to) result from – происходить от; получаться из

(to) result in –  приводить к; давать в результате

 

3. Find in the text the following word combinations:

производить семена, процесс размножения, части полного цветка, самая наружная часть цветка, листоподобный, ярко окрашенные лепестки, перекрестноопыляющееся растение, растения, опыляемые насекомыми.

Text B

Functions of Flowers

A flower, also known as a bloom or blossom, is reproductive structure found in flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male cells with female cells in order to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, leading to the formation and dispersal of the seeds. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape.

The grouping of flowers on a plant is called the inflorescence. In addition to serving as the reproductive organs of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans, mainly to beautify their environments but also as the source of the food. Each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of its pollen. Some flowers attract and use insects, birds to transfer pollen from one flower to the next.

Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that the pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a matte). Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so much influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature.

The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life circle. Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordial into floral primordial. People grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers or buy flowers from florists.

Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower, and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are clovers and capers. Hundreds of flesh flowers are dipped in bread crumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cornflower, canna and sunflower. Flowers can also be made into herbal teas; they are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties.

Notes:

inflorescence – соцветие

saffron – шафран

capers – каперсы

 

Skim the text again and:

a) find the sentence in the text, which enumerates the functions of the flower;

b) describe the process of pollination;

c) say, what attracts pollinators to the flower;

d) say, who takes part in the process of pollination;

e) say, how is flower produced.

Unit 5

Grammar Revision: Infinitive (Part I)

Text A:               Seed

Text B:               Seedbed Preparation

Инфинитив (Infinitive)

Инфинитив (the Infinitive) – это неличная форма глагола, которая называет действие. Инфинитив является основной (или I) формой глагола и представляет глагол в словаре. Признаком инфинитива является частица to: to help – помогать, to read – читать. Инфинитив употребляется без частицы to в следующих случаях:

You had better go now. – Лучше уйди / иди сейчас.

I must see you at once. – Мне надо сейчас же встретиться с тобой.

Таблица 4 – Формы инфинитива

Forms	Active	Passive
Indefinite	to write	to be written
Continuous	to be writing	–
Perfect	to have written	to have been written
Perfect Continuous	to have been writing	–

Инфинитив в форме действительного залога обозначает действие, произведённое лицом, выраженным в предложении подлежащим, а в страдательном залоге – действие, направленное на это лицо.

I like to help. – Я люблю помогать.

I like to be helped. – Я люблю, когда мне помогают.

Инфинитив в Indefinite Active обозначает действие, не уточняя характер его протекания. Инфинитив в Continuous Active подчеркивает длительность действия.

She likes to write letters. – Она могла писать письмо.

She must be still writing. – Она, должно быть, все еще пишет.

Неперфектный инфинитив выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола-сказуемого (или следующее за ним).

Перфектный инфинитив выражает действие, предшествующее действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.

I am glad to study at the University. – Я рад, что учусь в университете.

I am glad to have studied at the University. – Я рад, что учился в университете.

 

Text A

Vocabulary list

reproductive part – репродуктивная часть

embryonic plant – зародышевое растение

generation – поколение

seed coat – семенная кожура

germ – зародыш

dormant state – состояние покоя

food supply – запас питательных веществ

endosperm – эндосперм

seed leaves – семенные листочки

to germinate – прорастать

viability – жизнеспособность

viable – жизнеспособный

storage conditions – условия хранения

to mature – созревать

to swell – набухать

clover – клевер

pressure – давление

to cause – заставлять, вызывать

stands – всходы

germination – прорастание

cereal – злак

 

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

embryonic plant, new generation, plant in a dormant state, dry seeds, to germinate properly, high viability, food supply, the amount of required heat, reproductive part, storage conditions, air-dried seeds, seed coat, the kinds of seeds, moisture content, to retain vitality.

Read and translate text A.

Seed

Ordinarily the plant is divided as follows: the root system, stems and leaves and, the reproductive part made up of flowers, fruits and seeds.

Seed A seed must be looked upon as an embryonic plant of the new generation with enough stored food to start it off in life and seed coats for protection. Thus a seed consists of: a) the embryonic plant in a dormant state known also as the embryonic or germ; b) the food supply stored either inside the embryo or, as with the cereals, around it on the outside, in which case it is called the endosperm, c) one or more seed coats surrounding and protecting the other parts.

 Some seeds as those of the legumes do not contain an endosperm, the entire supply of food in them being stored inside the embryo in its seed leaves or cotyledons. Thus, in the seed the plant stores up food to be used at some future time. It is on this stored food that the young plant feeds until it is sufficiently developed to provide food for it.

Germination The dry seeds being placed under favorable conditions; the young dormant plant begins to grow. This change from a dormant state to one of activity is known as germination. For seeds to germinate well they should be well developed and have high viability. The length of time during which the seed remains viable depends on the species and the storage conditions as well, the maximum period for most species varying from 2 to 10 years. The main factor affecting the viability of seeds is their moisture content. For seeds to retain their vitality well they should be thoroughly air-dried as soon as mature and kept in dry place.

For germination to occur three conditions are necessary: sufficient heat, moisture and air should be present. Unless all three of these conditions are met, the seed will not germinate properly. The amount of required heat will vary with the kinds of seeds. Some seeds, as those of clover and oats, will grow at rather low temperature while the requirement of corn seeds is higher.

Text B

Seedbed Preparation

Good stands start with good seed. However, even the best seed will not produce optimum yields unless other factors are favorable. A good seedbed that supplies the proper environment for germination is of the greatest importance in ensuring an optimum stand of the crops to be grown. Such seedbed is to ensure adequate moisture for germination at the due seeding depth. The soil particles must be in contact with the seed they surround to allow maximum water absorption for rapid germination.

Before planting, a grower has to perform cultivation and at the same time preserve soil structure and minimize water loss due to evaporation from the soil surface. If the soil were too finely pulverized, crusting would occur. To maintain good structure the soil should not be cultivated when it is wet. The first tillage operation following the preceding harvest is to destroy crop residues and to incorporate them into the soil to be used for seeding. In some regions this is done in the fall, while in areas with short growing season this operation is delayed until early spring. Early cultivation allows more time for organic matter to decompose. Final seedbed preparation is complete in spring or late summer for crops to be sown in the fall. The first step is to cultivate with discs or harrows, or both. The surface soil is to be worked finely enough to minimize evaporation and to insure fine and mellow seedbed. It has to be cultivated deeply to kill early growing weeds. After cultivation, fields are sometimes rolled to ensure a firm seedbed. This is quite common in preparing the seed for most forage grasses. For crops that require irrigation, beds should be formed before rolling. To conserve moisture, final seedbed preparation should be followed by immediate planting.

However, even the best seedbed will not ensure a good stand unless there is enough oxygen and proper temperature for seed germination.

 

Unit 6

Grammar Revision: Infinitive (Part II)

Text A:                Soil

Text B:                Soil Water

Инфинитив (Infinitive)

В функции подлежащего

Если предложение начинается с инфинитива, за которым следует глагол-сказуемое, то этот инфинитив является подлежащим, и переводится на русский язык глаголом в неопределенной форме или существительным.

Text A

Vocabulary list

heavy soil – тяжелая почва

light soil – легкая почва

clay loam – глинистая почва

sandy soil – песчаная почва

acid soil – кислая почва

alkaline soil – щелочная почва

fine soil – мелкоструктурная почва

particle – частица

organic matter – органическое вещество

prepare – готовить

quantity – количество

loam soil – суглинистая почва

volume – объем

to arrange – располагаться, устраивать(ся)

erosion – эрозия

constituent – составная часть

coarse – грубый крупнозернистый

moist – влажный

oxidation – окисление

hydrogen – водород

abundant – обильный, изобильный

water-holding capacity – влагоемкость

provided – при условии

rich in – с высоким содержанием

to meet the needs – удовлетворять потребности

 

Soil

Being less important than climate soil properties are essential in determining which crop to grow.

Texture of a soil refers to the size of its particles. Soils range from pure sands to pure clays. The principle textural classes are sand, sandy loam, clay loam and loam. A soil with a large proportion of clay particles is usually called a heavy soil, and the one with a large proportion of sand – a light soil, two types differing greatly in the easy cultivation. Soil structure refers to the manner in which the particles are arranged. An aggregated or compound structure favours good seedbed preparation, easy cultivation and protection from the wind and water erosion. Aggregated structure normally is found in soils rich in organic matter.

Among soil constituents water is the most important one. The finer the soil particles, the more water the soil holds. Extremely coarse sandy soils are unable to store moisture in sufficient amounts for crops to grow well.

Air which makes up from 20 to 25 per cent by volume of an ordinary moist soil, supplies oxygen necessary for root growth and for oxidation of organic matter and other soil constituents.

To grow well crop plants need an adequate supply of plant nutrients during the growing.

About 25 or 30 chemical elements are found in plants, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen being most abundant. The essential mineral elements that are present in plants are most frequently deficient in soils are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. But in order to grow normally crops also absorb considerable quantities of other minerals, such as calcium, magnesium and sulfur.

 Good soils contain adequate amounts of available nutrients to meet the needs of a crop plant for normal growth. They are too acid or too alkaline to produce good growth. In general, fertile soils with a good water-holding capacity are favorable for the growth of the most important crop plants. Some soils may have an especially wide range of crop adaptation.

However, to apply additional fertilizer is usually a good practice even on the best soil, provided growing conditions are favorable.

            

Text B

Soil Water

Soil water is one of the most important factors affecting crop production. The success of a cropping system may sometimes depend on adequate irrigation and drainage program.

Water must be available in the soil to compensate its losses through some natural processes during the growing season. Soil water is needed as it conducts nutrients for growing crops. It also has a great effect on aeration and temperature conditions in the soil. The soil must be able to provide water for maximum yield to be obtained.

However, the moisture content of a soil is not always optimum for the highest crop production. Usually there is either a deficiency or too big amount of it, and crop production is reduced.

Some soils contain too much water at all times, and to be used for agriculture they require special drainage. There are soils which are always deficient in moisture because of inadequate rainfall, and will produce poor crops unless they are irrigated. Most agricultural soils have enough water to meet plant requirement during a considerable part of the year.

Soil water is also a very essential factor in cultivation. It often determines the time and the depth of sowing. Insufficient amount of moisture makes the soil too hard and very difficult to cultivate.

 

Unit 7

Grammar Revision: Conditional Clauses

Text A:                    Classification of Field Crops

Text B:               Botanical classification

 

Условные предложения I типа

Условие, содержащееся в условном придаточном предложении, рассматривается говорящим как реально предполагаемый факт, относящийся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему временам. Сказуемые главного и придаточного предложений выражаются глаголами в формах изъявительного наклонения.

If the weather is nice, we go for a walk. – Если погода хорошая, мы ходим на прогулку.

If the weather was nice, we went for a walk. – Если погода была хорошая, мы ходили на прогулку.

If the weather is nice, we'll go for a walk. – Если погода будет хорошая, мы пойдём на прогулку.

Complete the sentences.

1. If people (not to drink), they (to die). 2. If you (to eat) bad food, your health (to become) worse. 3. If you (not to feel) well, you (to go) to the doctor. 4. If babies (to be) hungry, they (to cry). 5. If I (to be) thirsty, I always drink fresh water. 6. If Tom (to have) a birthday party, he usually (to invite) a lot of friends. 7. If Mary (to do) her homework well, her teacher always (to praise) her. 8. If I (to have) a headache, my mother usually (to give) me some medicine. 9. If I (to cough), I (to drink) hot milk with honey. 10. If you (to fly) by a budget airline, you (to have) to pay for your drinks and food. 11. If we (to be) late for school, our teacher (to get) angry.

Text A

Vocabulary list

ability – способность

growth habit – специфика (особенность) роста

annual – однолетний

barley – ячмень

bean – боб

biennial – двухлетний

to define – определять

edible – съедобный

fiber – волокно

flax – лен

grass – трава, злаковое растение

hemp – конопля

like – подобный

manure – удобрение (органическое)

to mention – упоминать

nitrogen – азот

object – цель

perennial – многолетний

to raise – выращивать

root crop – корнеплод

rope – веревка, канат

tuber – клубень

root crop – корнеплод

oats – овес

forage crop – кормовая культура

cotton – хлопок

rye – рожь

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

the aim of classification, according to growth habit, cereals raised by man, to improve soil fertility, grain crop, the main object, to fix free nitrogen, field peas, a thickened underground stem, root crop, a specific purpose, forage crops, green manure crops.

 

Cereal or Grain Crops

If an agronomist were asked to define a cereal, he would say that it is the grass grown for its edible grain. Corn, barley, oats, rice, and rye to be mentioned as the main cereals raised by man.

Large-Seeded Legumes

The principle legumes grown for seeds are field peas, field beans and soybeans. Sometimes the main object in growing legumes is to improve soil fertility for they are able to fix free nitrogen out of the air through the bacteria living on their roots.

Root Crops

Unlike cereals, root crops as beets, for instance, are grown because of the food value on their roots. If they had not such an ability, they could not live and produce seeds the second year.

Forage Crops

If you look for a definition of a forage crops, you will find that it is a crop grown because of its stems and leaves that are to be used in to fix free nitrogen. Forage crops include all grasses cut for hay, legumes cut for forage, sorghum and corn fodder.

Tubers

A tuber is a thickened underground stem. The most important tuber cultivated throughout the world is potato. We should make a great mistake if we called it a root crop, because its habit of life is quite unlike that of the root crop.

Fiber Crops

Several plants are grown because of their fiber which is used in making textile, ropes and similar materials. The principle fiber crops are cotton, flax and hemp.

Crops for Special Farm Uses

A special purpose crop may be any of the other types grown for a specific purpose. For instance, crops, like legumes, are grown to be plowed under for soil improvement and are called green manure crops.

 

Text B

Botanical classification

Crops are variously grouped and classified. They may be classified as cultivated or row crops, such as corn, soybeans, and cotton; noncultivated crops, such as wheat and barley; and hay pasture crops, such as clover, alfalfa and many other small-seeded legumes and grasses.

Crops are also grouped according to the duration of their growth. Annual crops are those that complete their life cycle in one season. Biennials start their growth in one season but produce seed and die at the end of the second season. Perennials grow for more than two seasons, producing seeds each year. The most important and most often used classifications are botanical classification and agronomic classification.

Botanical classification is based upon similarity of plant parts. Most of our field crops belong to one of the two botanical families: the grasses and the legumes. The main food plants are known to belong to the grass family, including all cereal crops and about three fourths of the cultivated forage crops. Cereals are the world’s leading food and feed crops. They are grain-bearing grasses such as wheat, corn, rye, barley, oats etc. Forage grasses are the ones that are highly essential for the economic production of livestock products. Almost all grasses have hollow stems made up of nodes and internodes. The roots are fibrous. Grasses may be either annuals or perennials.

The legume family includes such large seeded legumes as field peas, field beans, soybeans and such nutritious forage crops as alfalfa and clovers. The plants of this family are the only ones growing in a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia bacteria. Multiplying in the nodules on the roots of the legume crops bacteria are able to fix free atmospheric nitrogen in their bodies and in the plant residues.

Plowing under these plants residues, one can increase soil fertility. Being high in protein content the legume crops are valued as food for man and farm animals. Legumes may be annual, biennials and perennials. The fruit is a pod containing from one to several seeds. Legumes have tap roots.

There are some other botanical families that include crop plants widely used by man. Such crops are potatoes, sugar beets, cotton, flax, buckwheat and others.

 

Say it in English:

– name some annual plants and their life cycles;

– characterize biennial crops;

– describe perennial crops;

– name some crops belonging to cereals and give their botanical characters;

– name some pulse crops;

– what are legumes grown for?

– name the crops used by man for food.

Unit 8

Grammar Revision: Complex Object

Text A:               Corn

Text B:               Corn Requirements

 

Text A

Vocabulary list

abundance – обилие, изобилие

character – особенность, свойство

to do well – расти (развиваться) хорошо

to drain – осушать, дренировать

essential – существенный, важный

fibrous – мочковатый, волокнистый

generous – обильный

growing period – вегетационный период

height – высота

hollow – полый

to introduce – вводить, ввозить

node – узел

internode – междоузлие

length – длина

variety – сорт

fertility – плодородие

loam – суглинок

to mature – созревать

be a native of – быть родом из

to penetrate – проникать

pith – мякоть, сердцевина

rainfall – осадки

to retain – удерживать, сдерживать

to spread – распространять

spongy – губчатый, пористый

temperate – умеренный

timothy – тимофеевка

 

Corn

Corn is known to belong to the tropical plants. However, it has been found that it is well adapted to the Temperate Zone where it reaches its best development.

The leading countries in the production of this crop are the United States, Russia, Argentina and Egypt.

Corn is thought to be a native of America. It is said that it was introduced into Europe by Columbus. Botanically corn is a grass, that is, it belongs to the same family of plants as timothy and wheat. Its roots are fibrous and spread several feet in the ground in all directions.

The stem, like that of all the grasses, is made up of nodes and internodes, varying greatly in length in different varieties.

The corn stem is known to have a hard fibrous coat and a soft spongy pith, differing from the hollow stem of most grasses.

The height of the plant varies from 5 to 20 feet. The usual height is considered to be from 5 to 10 feet.

Climatic Requirements Corn requires a generous, well distributed rainfall, a frost-free growing period of sufficient length and an abundance of warm weather.

A good distribution of rainfall is essential during the critical months of July and August. During this period of rapid growth corn is found to require a large amount of water.

A growing season from 80 to 160 days is necessary to mature the various corn varieties. Production of corn in the northern regions has been increased as a result of the development of very early maturing hybrids. Most of the earlier maturing varieties grown in these areas are used for silage.

Soil Corn is known to produce a larger total yield than that of the other cereals. It does best in warm, rich, moist, well-drained loam soils. It would also grow, if the land were light and poor, but it makes really good growth only on deep rich soils.

Everybody knows soil fertility to be more important with corn than in the growing of many other cereals. The soil must be compact enough to retain moisture, yet should be fine and mellow enough so that the roots may easily penetrate it.

Planting The time of planting varies with the location as well as the condition of the soil. To choose a proper time for planting corn is very important for securing good results.

It is useless to plant corn until the soil becomes warm enough; the farmer cannot expect corn to do well if it is planted in cold wet ground. Seed that would normally germinate would be lost if it were planted under improper conditions. The most convenient time to start planting corn in the northern parts of the USA is thought to be that of planting potatoes.

The depth of planting is known to vary with the condition of the soil. The seed must be planted deep enough to get sufficient moisture for its germination, but it is not necessary to plant it deeper.

 

Text B

Corn Requirements

Corn is believed to have been a highly developed cultivated crop in the New World long before its discovery. The origin of corn is unknown since the plant has been found only under cultivation. Now corn is more widely distributed over the world than any other cereal crop. Corn is a member of the grass family. It is an extremely variable plant and there exist a large number of varieties that differ widely in size and shape. Corn is a warm-weather plant that requires high temperatures day and night during the growing season. It has been found to be highly susceptible to frost injury at the time of its growth. Actually corn requires a relatively small amount of water for each pound of dry matter produced, its high water requirement being due to the potential high acre production. When growing rapidly in July and August, corn needs much water because of the high rate of evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the leaves.

Corn makes its best growth if planted in a fertile, well-drained, loam soil. Besides, soils of high inorganic matter are ideal for this crop, for they have a high water-holding capacity. In addition to fertile soil and adequate moisture an abundance of sunshine is necessary for the plants to manufacture large quantities of food to be stored in the grain. Cool, cloudy weather results in heavy vegetative growth and low yields of grain. The object is to plant corn at the depth that will provide optimum soil temperature and water and result in rapid germination. Corn planting depth varies widely with the soil conditions and climate. As corn should be planted deep enough to place the seed in contact with warm moist soil, the usual depth is 2 to 3 inches in rows from 30 to 40 inches apart. The soil being rather cold, the depth of 1 to 1 ½ inches may be advisable. Corn is cultivated primarily to control weeds and to a less extent to conserve moisture and aerate the soil. Corn is grown principally for grain, fodder, silage, pasturing. Nearly 90% of the corn grain is used directly as livestock feed. When cut for silage or harvested for fodder, corn does not usually leave the farm on which it is produced. Corn has numerous industrial uses. Its stems and leaves seem to have been used for making paper from the ancient times.

Notes:

the New World – Новый Свет

from the ancient times – с давних времен

water - holding capacity – способность удерживать влагу, влагоемкость

inch – дюйм

fodder – зеленый корм

 

Unit 9

Grammar Revision: Sequence of Tenses

Text A:               Wheat

Text B:                The most Important Grain Crop

 

Correct the mistakes.

1.Mike told the policeman that he lost his identity card. 2. Jane said to Dick that Julia doesn’t live next to her. 3. She told the detective that she sees the thief in the house. 4. He said that he ate nothing since morning. 5. My girlfriend told me that she was ready in a few minutes. 6. Tom’s boss said to him that he hasn’t done the work properly. 7. Anna said that she doesn’t want to wear her old dress. 8. Her brother told her that they will have plenty of time to do their work.

Text A

Vocabulary list

grass family – семейство злаков

valuable – ценный

humid – влажный

area – площадь, область

arid – сухой, засушливый

to prevail – преобладать

favor – способствовать, благоприятствовать

destructive – губительный, разрушительный

annual – годовой, однолетний

rainfall – осадки

inch – дюйм

moderate – умеренный

spring wheat – яровая пшеница

winter wheat – озимая пшеница

to sow – сеять

to mature – созревать

joint – узел, сочленение

jointed – узловатый

hollow – полый 

node – узел

internode – междоузлие  

fibrous – мочковатый

beard – ость

beardless – безостый

winter hardiness – зимостойкость

preceding crop – предшествующая культура

stubble – стерня

 

1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

throughout the world, from time immemorial, a true annual, destructive diseases, a wide range, the early stages of growth, on the other hand, seedbed preparation, winter wheat varieties, annual rainfall, to be of prime importance, fibrous root system, hollow stem, as a rule.

Wheat

Wheat is cultivated throughout the world. It is known to have been grown extensively in Asia, in Europe and in the Northern part of Africa from time immemorial. The farmers of China are believed to have grown this crop at least 3000 years ago.