Unit 3 Why do we need oil and gas.

Учебно-методическое пособие

для контролируемой самостоятельной

работы студентов

Курса

горно-нефтяного факультета

 

 

Уфа 2014

  Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для внеаудиторных занятий со студентами первого, второго курса  специальностей БГР, БГГ, БГБ и БГЛ  горно-нефтяного факультета. Пособие состоит из трех частей, первая из которых включает общетехнические тексты, а вторая часть – общие тексты по профилю вуза и горно-нефтяного факультета, третья часть рассматривает разделы грамматики, на которые обычно не хватает аудиторных часов. Каждый текст снабжен словарем общетехнических терминов, позволяющим расширить лексический запас студентов, и способствующий лучшему пониманию прочитанного материала. После текстов даются вопросы на проверку усвоения их содержания, позволяющие преподавателю проверить уровень усвоения материала. Грамматический раздел снабжен не только кратким изложением материала, но и упражнениями на закрепление этого материала.

 

Составители: Кожевникова А.И., ст. преподаватель

                    Хильшер Г.Н., ст. преподаватель

 

Рецензент:    

 

©Уфимский государственный нефтяной технический университет, 2014  

PART I

    Translate the following texts using a dictionary:

                                                       

                                 № 1. WEIGHT AND MASS

 

Words to be remembered:

weight - вес

the same – один и то же, одинаковый

body – тело

interchangeable – взаимозаменяемый

to attract – притягивать

to measure – измерять

according to – согласно чему-либо

to extend – растягивать

quantity – количество

to divide – делить, разделять

to multiply – умножать

acceleration – ускорение

 

    In common language, "weight" and "mass" are often spoken of as though they were the same things, and a body may be spoken of as "heavy" or "massive" interchangeably: even physicists some­times fall into a trap. However, consider what weight is. This weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted to the earth.

   What will happen to the spring according to Hook's law? A simple way to measure the weight of an object is to suspend it from a coiled spring. In accordance with Hook's law the force by which the body is attracted to the earth will extend the spring, and the amount of the extension is proportional to the force. A weight-measuring device of this sort is a spring ba­lance.

  The mass of a body, on the other hand, is the quantity of inertia it possesses. By Newton's second law: It is a force divided by an acceleration. Weight, which is a force, must by the same law be a mass multiplied by an acceleration. In the case of weight, which is the force of earth's gravita­tional field upon a body, the acceleration is, naturally, that which is produced by the earth's gravitational field.

 

Questions on the text:

  1) Can the words ‘weight’ and ‘mass’ be used interchangeably? 2) What is weight? 3) What is a simple way the measure the weight of an object? 4) What is the mass of a body? 5) What is weight by Newton’s second law?

 

 

                                  

 

№ 2. THE ROLE OF GRAVITY

 

Words to be remembered:

force – сила

gravity – сила тяжести, сила притяжения

to act – действовать (на тело)

particle – частица

base oneself upon – опираться на, основывать

studies – исследования

to influence – влиять, оказывать влияние (на)

to govern – управлять

to provide – обеспечивать

to reveal – обнаруживать, открывать

shape – форма

general relativity – общая относительность

 

    Among the fundamental forces of nature, gravity is of spe­cial interest for several reasons. It is, first of all, the only truly universal force. It acts on every material thing from electron to galaxy, and, as we have learned in this century, it even acts on particles like photons and neutrinos or energy in any form. Second_, gravity played a uniquely important role in the development and growth of mechanics. Newton, in his formulation of mechanics, based himself upon the studies of motion near the earth, influenced by local gravity, and of planetary motion far from the earth, influenced by the sun's gravity. Since Newton's time, the motion governed by the gravitational force has provided the strictest tests of mechanics. It has served as stimulus for much of the mathematical elaboration of the theory of mechanics. It has led to the discovery of distant new planets, and in own era of artificial satellites, it has revealed new details of the shape and structure of the earth. Through the study of the orbit of Mercury came the first hint of an imperfection of Newtonian mechanics. Mercury's re­fusal to follow precisely the laws of classical mechanics stands now as one of the experimental supports of new mechanics of Einstein's general relativity.

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) What is gravity? 2) What does gravity act on? 3) Did Newton base his formulation of mechanics on the influence of gravity? 4) What are the results of the discovery that the motion is governed by the gravitational force? 5) What was the result of the study of the orbit of Mercury?

 

                  № 3.   ELEMENTARY ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 

  Words to be remembered:

 

matter – материя, вещество

particle – частица

to combine with – сочетаться друг с другом, комбинироваться

in different ways – разными способами, по разному

behavior – поведение

positively charged – положительно заряженный

negatively charged – отрицательно заряженный

nucleus – ядро

substance – вещество

outermost electrons – внешние электроны

inner – внутренний

to bind (bound, bound) – связывать, соединять

be responsible for – являться причиной, отвечать за что-либо

 

   Matter is made up of tiny particles known as atoms. There are only about a hundred different kinds of atoms, and they combine with each other in different ways to form groups called molecules. All matter is composed of atoms or molecules and some knowledge of how atoms are made will give us valuable in­formation about the behavior of matter.

In 1911, Rutherford in England discovered that an atom has a tiny nucleus which is positively charged and contains nearly all the mass of the atom. Distributed about the nucleus and revolving about it in orbits are much less massive negatively charged particles called electrons.

In a normal atom, there are exactly as many negatively charged electrons as are needed to neutralize the positive charge of the nucleus, so that the atom as a whole is electrically neut­ral. This is of course also true of all normal material sub­stances, which are composed of atoms. The outermost electrons are less strongly bound to the atom than the inner ones, and they are the ones that take part in chemical reactions between atoms and that are responsible for the accumulation of an elec­tric charge on bodies.

 

Questions on the text:

1) What is matter made up of? 2) What do atoms form? 3) Why do we study how atoms are made? 4) What did Rutherford discover in 1911? 5) Why is atom as a whole electrically neutral? 6) Are outermost or inner electrons less strongly bound to the atom? 7) What electrons take part in chemical reactions?

 

                       № 4.   MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

 

Words to be remembered:

 

piece – кусочек

iron ore – железная руда

to suspend – подвешивать

position – положение

to point – указывать

approximately – приблизительно

behavior – поведение

loadstone – магнетит, магнитный железняк

artificial – искусственный

magnetic field – магнитное поле

steel rod – стальной стержень

to hit – ударить

partially – частично

to repel – отталкивать

compass needle – стрелка компаса

pole – полюс

 

   The ancient Chinese knew that pieces of certain natural iron ores, when suspended by a string, take a definite position with one end pointing approximately north and the other approximate south. It is clear from the behavior of the magnetic compass of loadstone and other magnets both natural and artificial.

   We can use the magnetic field of the earth to magnetize steel rods if we hold them in the direction of the magnetic field of the earth and hitting them repeatedly with a hammer. The violent impacts shake the tiny particles of the rod and orient them, at least partially, in the direction of the field. 

  If we bring two magnetized steel rods close together, we find the ends pointed the same way during the magnetization process, to repel each other and if one of the rods is turned around, the ends of the rode attract one another.

This behavior shows that a long piece of magnetized mate­rial - or a compass needle - shows its magnetic properties most strongly in the region near its end, known as the poles of the magnet. Poles that point toward this same direction repel each other. 

 

 

  Questions on the text:

1) What did the ancient Chinese know? 2) What can we use the magnetic field of the earth for? 3) How can we magnetize steel rods? 4) What happens if we bring two magnetized steel rods together? 5) Where does a long piece of magnetized material show its magnetic properties most strongly?

        

№5. SOME FACTS ABOUT ATOMS

 

Words to be remembered:

 

to exist – существовать

arrangement in molecules – расположение в молекуле

to determine – определять, устанавливать

investigation – исследование

essentially – по сути

be referred to – (зд.) называться

to believe – считать, полагать

to revolve – вращаться

central core – центральное ядро

positively charged – положительно заряженный

to form – формировать, образовывать

compound –  соединение

nucleus – атомное ядро

number – количество

a number of – ряд

 

  An atom may be spoken of as the smallest particle of any substance. If atoms cannot be seen it does not necessarily mean that they do not exist. It indicates that any particle, if pre­sent, must be extremely small. There are methods by means of which the sizes of atoms and their arrangement in molecules can be determined. One of these methods uses X-ray diffraction.

In the course of many investigations, chemists came to a conclusion that the atoms of different elements are all made essentially of three simple types of units, which were referred to as protons, neutrons, and electrons. We now believe that an atom is composed of a cloud of electrons that revolve about a central core of protons or of protons plus neutrons. Repeated experiments show that every atom has the same number of electrons as well as protons. The posi­tively charged protons form the nucleus of the atom. The neutrons are also found in the nucleus of the atom. 

  It was also found that many elements and compounds are com­posed of small numbers of atoms which are held together in a regular arrangement. These groups of atoms are referred to as molecules. 

  It is known that ninety-two elements occur in nature, and a number of others have been made by man in the laboratory. Every element is a special combination of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each element is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus and is designated by a name and a symbol.

Element Number 1 is a combination of one proton and one electron. Long before its atomic structure was known this ele­ment was referred to as hydrogen, or "water-former", because water forms when hydrogen burns in air. Its symbol is H.  

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) What is an atom? 2) Can we see atoms? 3) How can we determine the sizes of atoms? 4) What are atoms made of? 5) What forms the nucleus of the atom? 6) What are molecules?  7) How many elements occur in nature? 8) How is each element identified? 9) What is element number 1?

№ 6. LIQUIDS

Words to be remembered:

liquid – жидкость; жидкий

solid – твердое тело; твердый

state – состояние

volume – объем

definite shape – определенная форма

vessel – сосуд

in contrast to – в отличие от

to fill – заполнять, наполнять

to compress – сжимать

close – близкий, тесный

to increase – увеличивать, повышать

to occur – происходить, случаться

depend upon – зависеть от

transition temperature – переходная температура

to place – помещать

layer – слой

dense – плотный

soluble – растворимый

to disturb – беспокоить, нарушать

it is to be taken into consideration –  нужно учитывать, нужно помнить

to flow (flew, flown) -  течь, фильтроваться

friction – трение

to generate – (зд.) возникать

to vary – меняться, изменяться

vapour – пар

evaporation – испарение

recondensation – последующая конденсация

 

 The liquid state occupies an intermediate position between the gaseous and solid states, liquid having a definite volume but no definite shape.

  Like a gas, a liquid can take the shape of any vessel in which it is put, but in contrast to a gas, a definite quantity of liquid is required for filling the vessel. A liquid can not be compressed so much as a gas because its molecules are alrea­dy close together, large pressure producing small changes in volume.

Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of all molecules.

The change of a liquid into a gaseous or solid states being dependent upon the kinetic energy of the molecules, which in turn is dependent upon the temperature, there are definite temperature characteristics for most liquids at which these changes occur. They are known as transition temperatures.

If we place one liquid layer carefully on top of a layer of a more dense liquid in which it is soluble, and set the vessel where it won't be disturbed, we shall see that two liquids be­gin gradually mixing. It is also to be taken into consideration that all liquids do not flow with the same ease, water, alcohol, gasoline flowing easily, while heavy oil glycerine flowing very slowly.

When a liquid flows, layers of molecules begin rubbing over each other, friction is generated by this rubbing of layers of particles. The greater the friction, the slower is the flow.

The molecules of a liquid are much closer together than they are in a gas, because of the greater relative strength of attrac­tion. The density of liquids is much greater. Naturally as the volume of a liquid begins varying with temperature its den­sity will also start varying with temperature.

     The escape of the molecules from a liquid into its vapour is called evaporation. After a sufficient number of molecules have collected in the space above the liquid, their haphazard wanderings bring them back to the surface as fast as other mo­lecules escape. Thereafter, there is a balance between evaporation and recondensation.

 

Questions on the text:

 

  1) What is a liquid state? 2) What is the difference between a liquid and a gas?

3) What does the change of a liquid into a gaseous or solid state depend on? 4) What are transition temperatures? 5) What liquids flow easily? 6) What liquid flows very slowly? 7) Why do some liquids flow very easily and some flow very slowly? 8) How is friction generated? 9) What is evaporation?

 

№ 7.  SOLID STATE

Words to be remembered:

paper clip – скрепка для бумаги

to bend (bent, bent) – сгибать, гнуть

to break (broke, broken) – ломаться

ductile – упругий

glass rod – стеклянный стержень

brittle – хрупкий

to conduct electricity – проводить электричество

electrical transmission lines – линии электропередач

insulator – изолятор

opaque – непрозрачный

reason – причина

to behave – вести себя

behavior – поведение

to reveal – открывать, обнаруживать

to assume – предполагать

to turn out – оказываться, выясняться

  If you take a paper clip and bend it, it would stay bent, it wouldn't spring back and it wouldn't break. The metal of which the clip is made is ductile. Some other materials are not duc­tile at all. If you tried to bend a glass rod, (unless you are holding it in a flame), it would simply break. It is brittle. In this respect as in many others, glass behaves quite different­ly from a metal. The difference must lie either in the parti­cular atoms of which metals and glass are made up or in the way they are put together, probably both. There are of course many other differences between metals and glass.

  Metals, for example, conduct electricity and therefore are used for electrical transmission lines, glass hardly conducts electricity at all and can serve as an insulator. Glass being transparent, it can be used in windows whereas a sheet of metal even more than a millionth of an inch thick is quite opaque. It is of course interesting to understand the reasons of these differences in behavior.

   We should remember that metals conduct electricity well and most materials do not.

   Only the discovery of an electron helped the scientists to understand some of this fact well. With the dis­covery of an electron it was assumed that in metals some or all of the atoms had lost an electron and that in insulators such as glass they had not. It turned out that electrons in a metal move freely, whereas the electrons in insulators do not. Why did this happen in metals? This very question had to await the discovery of quantum mechanics. The next question was «How are the electrons arranged?»

As far as this question is concerned we can say that solids can be divided into two clasps: crystalline and amorphous. In the crystalline group, which is the largest and includes the metals and most minerals, the atoms are arranged in a regular way.                                  

 

Questions on the text:

1) Why wouldn’t a paper clip spring back or break if you bend it? 2) Why wouldn’t a glass rod bend? 3) Why does glass behave differently from a metal? 4) Do we use glass for electrical transmission lines? Why? 5) Can we use a sheet of metal in windows? Why? 6) What did the discovery of an electron help the scientists understand? 7) Why do some material conduct electricity and some don’t?

                    

                                          № 8. CHEMISTRY

Words to be remembered:

to deal with – иметь дело с чем-либо

property – свойство

composition – состав

to take place – происходить, случаться

goods – товары

manufacture – производство

homogeneous – гомогенный, однородный

heterogeneous – гетерогенный, разнородный

to consist of – состоять из

to decompose (into) – разлагать (на)

alloy – сплав

common – обычный, распространенный

in order to – для того, чтобы

standard of living – уровень жизни

phenomenon, phenomena (pl)– явление, явления (мн.ч.)  

descriptive – дескриптивный, описательный

in part – частично

separation – сепарация, разделение

at present – в настоящее время

to maintain – поддерживать

defini­tion – определение

 

    Chemistry is the science which deals with materials, their properties and the transformations they undergo. So chemistry is the study of the composition and properties of matter, their changes, the conditions under which such changes take place, and the energy changes which accompany them.

Chemistry is concerned with the nature of fire and the structure of water, it deals with colours, catalysis and crystal structure, with physical properties and chemical reactivity.

Chemistry is one of the fundamental sciences. It plays an important part in the development of biochemistry, physics, geo­logy and many other goes of science. Chemistry's origin goes back to ancient times, with the manufacture of bronze, iron, ceramica, glass.

Everyone now understands the importance of chemistry. The future of chemistry is practically unlimited. Rapid development of chemical industry will make it possible to create many new goods, machines, plastics, polymers, it will help to under­stand many new phenomena.

    It is to be remembered that:

1. Chemistry is the study of substances, their structure, properties, and their   

reactions.

2. Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases.

3. Homogeneous material is material with the same properties throughout.

4. Heterogeneous material is material consisting of parts with different properties.

5. Compound is a substance that can be decomposed into two or more substances.

6. Substance is a homogeneous species of matter with defi­nite chemical

composition.

7. Chemical reactions are the processes that convert substances into other

substances.

8. Alloy is a metallic material containing two or more ele­ments.

Common examples of substances are: water, sugar, salt, copper, iron and many others. Chemists study substances in order to learn as much as they can about their properties and about the reactions that change them into other substances. This knowledge is very important as it can make the world a better place to live in, it can make people happier, it can raise their standard of living.

Chemists discovered many laws, investigated many important phenomena in life. They produced many artificial substances which have valuable properties.

Chemistry has two main aspects: descriptive chemistry, the discovery of chemical facts, and theoretical chemistry the formulation of theories.

  The broad field of chemistry may also be divided in other ways. An important division of chemistry is that into the branches of organic chemistry and inorganic chemistry.

  Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the compounds of car­bon that occur in plants and animals.

  Inorganic chemistry is the chemistry of the compounds of ele­ments other than carbon. Each of these branches of chemistry is in part descriptive and in part theoretical.

  Analytical chemistry deals with the methods of separation. Synthetic chemistry deals with the methods by which complex bo­dies can be built from simpler substances. Physical chemistry deals with changes of state and with the motions of molecules. But at present the scientists don't maintain this defini­tion.

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) What does chemistry study? 2) What is chemistry concerned with? 3) What does chemical industry make it possible to create? 4) What should we remember? 5) Give common example of substances 6) Why do chemists study substances? 7) What are two main aspects of chemistry? 8) What does organic chemistry study? 9) What does inorganic chemistry deal with? 10) What other fields of chemistry are mentioned (упоминаются) in the text?

                                    

№ 9.  MEASUREMENTS IN CHEMISTRY

Words to be remembered:

quantity – количество

quantitative relationship – количественная связь

various – различный, разнообразный

to undergo changes – претерпевать изменения, подвергаться изменениям

since – так как

to measure – измерять

measure – мера

measurement – измерение

measuring device – измерительное устройство

to take into account – принимать во внимание, учитывать

to employ – применять, использовать

volume – объем

sample – образец

to permit – позволять, разрешать

object – объект, предмет, тело

 

  In order to understand the quantitative relationships which exist between various kinds of matter, the chemist who is in­terested in matter and changes which

it undergoes, has to mea­sure the quantities of matter with which he works. Since mass is the measure of the quantity of matter, he is to measure mass. The measuring device the chemist is to employ in this determination should be the balance.

 Since for every chemical change there is always accompanying energy change which the chemist has to take into account, the calorimeter and the thermometer have to be used.

The chemist usually employs graduated cylinders, burettes, pipettes and volumetric flasks for the measurements of volumes of liquids, and the gas burette for the measurement of volumes of gases.

The chemist employs the barometer if he has to measure the pressure.

The analytical chemist and the physical chemist employ such devices as calorimeters, refractometers, and a number of electrical devices.

If the chemist is to examine very small samples of matter, he should use a microscope. The microscope is an instrument which by the combination of lenses permits man to see objects which are too small to be seen with a naked eye; it is an instru­ment which is useful in many sciences and which, although more frequently used in a qualitative way, can also be used quantitavely.

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) What should we do in order to understand the quantitative relationships between various kinds of matter? 2) What is the chemist interested in? 3) What does mass show? 4) What measuring device does the chemist use to measure mass? 5) What other devices does the chemist employ? 6) What is measured with the barometer? 7) What kind of device is a microscope? 8) Is a microscope useful only in chemistry?

                                                

№ 10. CARBON

Words to be remembered:

carbon – углерод

to occur – залегать, встречаться

lubricant – смазка

to burn – гореть, сгорать

carbon monoxide (CO) – окись углерода, угарный газ

carbon dioxide (CO2) – двуокись углерода, углекислый газ

the former … the latter – первый … последний (из упомянутых)

to produce – (зд.) вырабатывать, производить; образовываться

deficien­cy – недостаток

oxygen – кислород

to result in – приводить к чему-либо

colourless – бесцветный

odourless – без запаха

soluble – растворимый

solubility – растворимость

to dissolve – растворять

reducing agent – восстановитель, регенератор

acid – кислота; кислый

due to – из-за

carbonic acid – угольная кислота

vapour pressure – паровое давление, давление пара

to vaporize – испаряться

 

   Carbon occurs in nature in its elementary state in two allotropic forms namely diamond, this being the hardest substance known, and graphite, a soft, black crystalline substance used as a lubricant. Having investigated all the substances thorough­ly the scientists found charcoal, coke, and carbon black to be microcrystalline or amorphous (non-crystalline) forms of carbon.

Carbon burns to form gases: carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, the former is produced when there is a deficien­cy of oxygen or the flame temperature is very high.

This investigation followed by others resulted in new disco­veries in the field of carbon. It has been found out that carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas with small solubility in water. It is poisonous because of its ability to combine the hemoglobin in the blood in the same way that oxygen does, and thus to prevent the hemoglobin from combining with oxygen in the lungs and carrying it to the tissues. It should be noted that the exhaust gas from automobile engines contain some car­bon. Nevertheless carbon monoxide is a valuable industrial gas, for use as a fuel and as a reducing agent.

Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas with a weakly acid taste, due to the formation of some carbonic acid when it is dissolved in water. It appears to be about 50% heavier than air. It is easily soluble in water, one liter of water at 0°C dissolving 1,713 ml of gas under 1 atm pressure.

When crystalline carbon dioxide is heated from a very low temperature its vapour pressure reaches 1 atm at 79° at which temperature it vaporizes without melting. If pressure were in­creased to 2,5 atm the crystalline substance could be changed directly to a gas.

Carbon dioxide is known to combine with water to form carbonic acid. If you studied all the properties more thoroughly you would see that carbon dioxide is used for the manufacture of sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, and carbonated water and for many other uses.

From this short review it’s clear that chemistry of carbon and its compounds is a very important field of chemistry and should be studied carefully.

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) In what two forms does carbon occur in nature? 2) What are microcrystalline or amorphous forms of carbon? 3) What gases can carbon form when burning? 4) How is carbon monoxide produced? 5) What is carbon monoxide? 6) Why is it poisonous? 7) Is it a valuable industrial gas? 8) What can you say about carbon dioxide? 9) What does the combination of water and carbon dioxide form? 10) How is carbon dioxide used?

 

№ 11. HYDROGEN

Words to be remembered:

hydrogen – водород

light – легкий

density – плотность

i.e. = id est = that is – то есть

in free state – в свободном виде

because of – из-за

reserves – резервы, запасы

energy source – источник энергии

environment – окружающая среда, экология

to transport by pipelines – перекачивать по трубопроводам

to transmit electricity – передавать электричество

to accumulate – накапливать

either … or – или … или, либо … либо

to obtain – получать

 

  Hydrogen is known to be the lightest of the elements. If the temperature is 20°C, it is an odourless, colourless, tasteless gas, its density being 0.08987, i.e. 1/15 that of air.

The gas is only slight­ly soluble in water, its solubility under standard pressure in 100 ml of water being 1,93 ml at 0°C.

Hydrogen could be found in the free state only in minute quantities because of its marked chemical activity. Specialists consider hydrogen to be an extremely promising energy source. The reserves of hydrogen are known to be practically unlimited. Another plus is that hydrogen can be used as fuel in transport, industry and at home. Extensive use of hydrogen as an energy source will help keep the environment clean.  

   Hydrogen is easy to transport and store. Even today, it costs several times less to transport by pipelines than to transmit electricity. Like any other gaseous fuel it could be accumulated and kept for a long time either in conventional or natural reservoirs.

    Scientists have found many ways of producing hydrogen - basically from ordinary water, large volumes of this fuel could be obtained from coal, its reserves being tremendous.

Questions on the text:

 

1) What is the lightest element? 2) What are the properties(свойства) of hydrogen at 20°C? 3) Why can we find hydrogen in the free state only in minute quantities? 4) What can you say about the reserves of hydrogen? 5) Where can it be used as a fuel? 6) Is it easy to transport and store hydrogen?

                                               №12. FUEL

Words to be remembered:

constituent – составляющая, составляющая часть

solid fuels – твердые виды топлива

coal – уголь

decomposition – разложение, распад

vegetable matter – растительное вещество

to consist of – состоять из

volatile matter – летучее вещество

anthracite coal – антрацит

bituminous coal – битуминозный уголь

to convert – превращать

coke – кокс

to heat – нагревать

coke oven – коксовая печь

to distill – дистиллировать, очищать

petroleum – нефть

coal gas – каменноугольный газ

methane – метан

illuminat­ing gas – светильный газ

natural gas – природный газ

well – скважина

largely – в основном

 

Carbon and hydrogen are the principal constituents of the solid fuels, coal and wood. Coal has been formed in nature by the slow decomposition of vegetable matter, in the presence of water and absence of air. Most of it was formed during the Carboniferous Period of geologic time, about 250 million years ago. Coal consists of free carbon mixed with various carbon compounds and some mineral matter. Anthracite coal (hard coal) contains much volatile matter, and burns with a smoky flame.

Bituminous coal can be converted into coke by heating without access of air. When the heating is carried out in a coke oven, many substances distill out, including gas for fuel, ammonia, and a complex mixture of liquid and solid organic com­pounds. The solid material remaining in the oven, consisting mainly of carbon, is called coke, it burns with a nearly color­less flame, and is used in great amounts in metallurgical pro­cesses.

Petroleum is a very important liquid fuel. It is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon and hydrogen.

  The gas obtained from a coke furnace (coal gas) consists of hydrogen (about 30%), methane, carbon monoxide (10%) and minor components. This coal gas was the original illuminat­ing gas. 

Natural gas, from gas wells and oil wells, consists largely of methane.

Questions on the text:

 

1) What are the principal constituents of the solid fuels? 2) How is coal formed? 3) When was most of it formed? 4) What does coal consist of? 5) What is anthracite coal? 6) How can bituminous coal be converted into coke? 7) What substances distill out in a coke oven? 8) What solid material remains in the oven? 9) What is petroleum? 10) What does the gas obtained from a coke furnace consist of? 11) What is the main component of natural gas?

 

PART II

Translate the following texts using a dictionary:

 

UNIT 1 OIL       

Words to be remembered:

 

vegetable remains – растительные остатки                  

hydrocarbon - углеводород 

complexity - сложность 

infinite number – бесконечное количество 

to distinguish - различаться   

property - свойство  

to determine - определять   

ceresine - церезин 

sulphur -сера 

nitrogen - азот

crude oil – сырая нефть 

wax - воск 

solution - раствор 

release of pressure – (pl/) понижение давления

refining – переработка (нефти), очистка

to recover - добывать 

gas cap – газовая шапка   

smell=odour - запах  

quantity - количество

impurity - примесь  

specific gravity – удельный вес 

to dissolve - растворяться  

combustible - горючий    

 

    All over the world there are accumulations of hydrocarbons formed long ago by decomposition of animal and vegetable remains. Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen (11-14%) and carbon (84-86%) that, at normal temperatures and pressure, may be gaseous, liquid or solid. There is an infinite number of hydrocarbons; they are all distinguished by their internal structure, carbon-hydrogen proportion and, therefore, by their chemical and physical properties.

 The oil of most oil fields consists of methane and saturated hydrocarbons. The molecules of methane hydrocarbons are a chain of atoms of carbon with atoms of hydrogen added. Their structure is determined by the formula CnH2n+2, where n shows the number of atoms in a molecule beginning with one.

Hydrocarbons with a small number of carbon atoms from CH4 to C4H10 are gases under standard conditions (a pressure of 760 mm of mercury and a temperature of +20 degrees Centigrade). Heavier hydrocarbons, from C5H12 to C16H34, are liquids under these conditions. Methane hydrocarbons with a still greater content are solids called paraffines and ceresines.

Oil also has smaller quantities of sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen.

Most crude oils, although liquid as such, contain gaseous and solid hydrocarbons in solution. The gases come out of solution either on the release of pressure as the crude oil is or during the first stages of refining. Some of the solids are recovered during refining as bitumen and wax. Natural gas is also found associated with crude oil as a gas cap above the oil or unassociated with oil.                                                                                           

Petroleum is a substance with a characteristic smell. The odour of petroleum depends on the nature, composition and quantity of hydrocarbons and different impurities. Its colour varies from light brown to dark brown, nearly black. Specific gravity of oil determines its colour. The heavier the oil the darker is the colour. Oil is much lighter than water. It doesn’t dissolve in water and forms a thin rainbow film on its surface. All sorts of oil are combustible.

 

Questions on the text:

 

     1) What are hydrocarbons? 2) How were they formed? 3) How are hydrocarbons distinguished? 4) What formula determines the structure of methane hydrocarbons? 5) Do most oils contain gaseous or solid hydrocarbons in solution? 6) When do gases come out of solution? 7) What happens during the first stages of refining? 8) What is called a gas cap? 9) What does the odour of petroleum depend on? 10) What determines its colour? 11) What is the dependence of the colour of oil on its specific gravity? 12) Is water lighter or heavier than oil? 13) Are all sorts of oil combustible?

 

UNIT 2 NATURAL GAS

 

Words to be remembered:

fossil fuels – ископаемые виды топлива 

to emit = to give off - выделять, испускать 

harmful byproducts - вредные побочные продукты     

primarily – в основном, главным образом        

chart - таблица  

composition - cостав  

carbon dioxide - углекислый газ 

hydrogen sulfide - сероводород 

trace - след 

to deliver - доставлять  

associated with - (зд.) сопровождающие, попутные 

to remove - удалять  

deposit - месторождение 

to refine - очищать  

impurities - примеси  

compound - соединение 

to exist - существовать

 

Before reading the text check the pronunciation of the following words:

 

  Carbon, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, ethane, propane, butane, argon, neon, helium, xenon

Natural Gas

 

   Natural gas is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. But natural gas is combustible, and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy. Unlike other fossil fuels, however, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air. We require energy constantly, to heat our homes, cook our food, and generate our electricity. It is this need for energy that has elevated natural gas to such a level of importance in our society, and in our lives.

Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases. While natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane. The composition of natural gas can vary widely, but below is a chart outlining the typical makeup of natural gas before it is refined.

 

                                      Typical composition of natural gas

Methane              CH4               70-90%

Ethane                 C2H6             0-20%

Propane               C3H8             0 – 5%

Butane                 C4H10           0 – 5%

Carbon Dioxide  CO2                0-8%

Oxygen               O2                   0-0.2%

Nitrogen              N2                  0-5%

Hydrogen sulfide H2S               0-5%

Rare gases Ar, He, Ne, Xe trace

 

In its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home, it is almost pure methane. Methane is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms, and is referred to as CH4.

  Ethane, propane, and the other hydrocarbons commonly associated with natural gas have slightly different chemical formulas, which can be seen here.

  Natural gas is considered ‘dry’ when it is almost pure methane, having had most of the other associated hydrocarbons removed. When other hydrocarbons are present, the natural gas is 'wet'.

  Natural gas has many uses, residentially, commercially, and industrially. Natural gas is commonly associated with oil deposits. When it is brought from underground, the natural gas is refined to remove impurities like water, other gases, sand, and other compounds. Some hydrocarbons are removed and sold separately, including propane and butane. Other impurities are also removed, like hydrogen sulfide (the refining of which can produce sulfur, which is then also sold separately). After refining, the clean natural gas is transmitted through a network of pipelines, thousands of miles of which exist in the United States alone. From these pipelines, natural gas is delivered to its point of use.

                                                     

Questions on the text:

 

  1) What is natural gas in its pure form? 2) How does natural gas differ from other fossil fuels? 3) Where do we use it? 4) What is natural gas? 5) What is the composition of the typical natural gas? 6) What is the difference between the ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ natural gas? 7) Why is natural gas refined? 8) What happens to natural gas after refining? 9) What happens to impurities like propane, butane and sulfur? 

 

UNIT 4  SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 

Words to be remembered:

 

the Earth's crust – земная кора

sedimentary rocks – осадочные породы

igneous rocks – изверженные породы, вулканические породы

metamorphic rocks – метаморфические породы

either … or – или…или, либо … либо

pre-existing – ранее существовавший

to solidify from – затвердевать (из)

be derived from – происходить (от), вести свое происхождение (от)

to stratify – напластовываться, залегать пластами

stratification – напластование, залегание

layer =bed = formation – пласт

surface – поверхность

organic decay – органическое разложение, распад

mechanical sediments – механические осадки

unconsolidated – неуплотненный

consolidated – уплотненный

to consist of – состоять из

loose = uncemented – рыхлый = несцементированный

particles = grains – частицы = зерна

gravel – гравий

sand – песок

sandstone – песчаник

clay – глина

clay schist – глинистый сланец

fine-grained – мелкозернистый

medium-grained – среднезернистый

coarse-grained – грубозернистый

calcium carbonate – карбонат кальция

destructive chemical action – разрушительное химическое действие

sedimentation – образование осадочных пород

to dissolve – растворять

limestone – известняк

organic sediments – органические осадки

 

   The rocks of the Earth's crust are divided into three main groups: sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks consist of fragments or particles of pre-existing rocks. Igneous rocks have solidified from magma. Metamorphic rocks have been derived from either igneous or sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary rocks have originated by sedimentation. They are layered or stratified. Stratification is the most important characteristic of sediments and sedimentary rocks. It is necessary to note that the processes which lead to the formation of sedimentary rocks are going on around us. Sediments are formed at or very near the surface of the Earth by the action of heat, water (rivers, glaciers, seas and lakes) and organisms. The thickness of the layers of sedimentary rocks can vary greatly from place to place. Sedimentary rocks can be formed by the mechanical action of water, wind, frost and organic decay.

   Mechanical sediments can be unconsolidated and consolidated. For example, gravel, sand and clay form the group of unconsolidated mechanical sediments, because they consist of loose uncemented particles (grains). On the Earth's surface we also find consolidated rocks, which are very similar to the loose sediments whose particles are firmly cemented to one another by some substance. The usual cementing substances are sand, clay, calcium carbonate and others. Such sediments as gravel, sand and clay can be transformed into conglomerates, sandstones and clay schists. Like sand, sandstones can be divided into fine-grained, medium-grained and coarse-grained.

   Chemical sediments are the result of deposits or accumulations of substances achieved by the destructive chemical action of water. The minerals such as rock salt, gypsum and others are formed through sedimentation of mineral substances that are dissolved in water.

   Sediments can also be formed by the decay of the remains of organisms. They are called organic sediments. Limestones, peat, coal, mineral oil and other sediments are examples of organic sediments.

   The most principal kinds of sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, shale, limestone and dolomite. Many other kinds with large practical value include common salt, gypsum, phosphate, iron oxide and coal.

Questions on the text:

 

1)  What main groups of rocks do you know? 2) What are sedimentary rocks? What do they consist of? 3) How were igneous rocks formed? 4) What are metamorphic rocks?  5) How have sedimentary rocks originated? 5) What is the most important characteristic feature of sediments? 6) What groups are all sediments divided into? 7) What are the two types of mechanical sediments? 8) Is gravel a consolidated mechanical sediment? 9) And what can you say about sand and clay? 10) What are the usual cementing substances? 11) Can calcium carbonate be used as a cementing substance? 12) Are there only fine-grained sandstones? 13) What can you say about chemical sediments? 14) Can you give an example of organic sediments? How are they formed?

 

UNIT 5 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Words to be remembered:

to solidify – затвердевать, твердеть; уплотняться

solidification – затвердевание

either … or – или…или, либо … либо

to occur – залегать

occurrence – залегание

mode of occurrence – условия залегания

intrusive = plutonic – интрузивный, внедрившийся = плутонический

extrusive = volcanic – эффузивный, излившийся = вулканический

bodies = masses – массы

grain size – размер зерна

be referred to – называться

fine – мелкий

to expose – выходить на поверхность, обнажаться

to cool – остывать, охлаждаться

to occupy – занимать

crack – трещина

volcanic ash – вулканическая зола

etc. = et cetera – и так далее

  Igneous rocks have crystallized from solidified magma. Igneous rocks can be classified based on the mode of occurrence. They occur either as intrusive (below the surface) bodies or as extrusive masses solidified at the Earth’s surface. The terms ‘intrusive’ and ‘extrusive’ refer to the place where rocks solidified.

   The grain size of igneous rocks depends on their occurrence. The intrusive rocks generally cool more slowly and crystallize to a larger grain size. They are referred to as intrusive igneous rocks because they intruded into older pre-existing rocks. They are also called plutonic. Extrusive or volcanic rocks have finer grains.      

   Exposed igneous rocks are most numerous in mountain zone. The largest bodies of igneous rocks are called batholiths. Batholiths cooled very slowly. This slow cooling permitted large mineral grains to form. It is not surprising that batholiths are composed mainly of granitic rocks with large crystals called plutons. Granites and diorites also belong to the group of intrusive or plutonic rocks formed by solidification of igneous mass under the Earth's crust.

  Laccoliths and sills are intruded between sedimentary rocks. Sills are thin and they may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. Laccoliths are thicker bodies and in some cases they form mountains.

  Dykes are also intrusive bodies. They range in thickness from a few inches to several thousand feet. Dykes are generally much longer than they are wide. Most dykes occupy cracks and have straight parallel walls. These bodies cool much more rapidly and are commonly fine-grained.

  Extrusive igneous rocks have been formed from lava flows which come from fissures to the surface and form fields of volcanic rocks such as basalt, volcanic ashes, dust, tuff, etc. As a rule these volcanic rocks cool very rapidly and are fine-grained. It is, interesting to note that basalt is the principal rock type of the ocean floor.

      Igneous rocks are rich in minerals that are important economically or have great scientific value. Igneous rocks and their veins are rich in iron, gold, zinc, nickel and other ferrous metals.

 

Questions on the text:

 

1) Have igneous rocks crystallized from magma or have they been formed by sedimentation? 2) Which types of igneous rocks do you know? 3) What does the grain size of igneous rocks depend on? 4) Can you give an example of intrusive or plutonic rocks? 5) Are diorites intrusive or extrusive formations? 6) What do you know about batholiths? 7) What can you say about laccoliths and sills? 8) What are dykes? What can you say about volcanic rocks? 9) What minerals are igneous rocks rich in?

 

UNIT 6 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Words to be remembered:

 

primary = original – первоначальный, изначальный

because of – из-за

texture – текстура

mineral composition – минеральный состав

to transform – превращать, изменять, трансформировать

gneiss – гнейс

mica – слюда

mica schist – слюдяной сланец    

marble – мрамор

slate = shale – сланец

quartz – кварц

unlike – в отличие от

schistose structure – сланцеватая, слоистая структура

band = layer – слой, пласт

to run parallel – располагаться (лежать) параллельно друг другу

amount – количество

grade – сорт

excess – избыток

deficiency – недостаток

absence – отсутствие

consist of – состоять из

flaky – слоистый, похожий на хлопья

to cause – вызывать, заставлять

to split (split, split) – раскалываться, расщепляться, трескаться

sheet – полоса

foliated – листоватый, тонкослоистый

 

 ‘Metamorphic’ means ‘changed from’. It shows that the original rock has been changed from its primary form to a new one. Because of pressures, heat and chemically active fluids under the Earth's surface various rocks in the Earth's crust change in texture, in mineral composition and structure and are transformed into metamorphic rocks. This process is called metamorphism.

   Metamorphic rocks have been developed from earlier igneous and sedimentary rocks by the action of heat and pressure. Gneisses, mica schists, phyllites, marbles, slate, quartz, etc. belong to the same group of rocks. They have the same mineral composition as granite, but gneisses consist chiefly of quartz, orthoclase and mica. However unlike granite, they have a schistose structure. It means that their constituents are distributed in bands or layers and run parallel to each other in one direction. If disturbed the rock cleaves easily into separate plates.       

   The role of water in metamorphism is determined by four parameters: rock pressure, temperature, water pressure, and the amount of water present. The low-grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by the excess of water. The medium-grade rocks are defined by some deficiency of water and the high-grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by the absence of water.

  Many of the metamorphic rocks consist of flaky materials such as mica and chlorite. These minerals cause the rock to split into thin sheets, and rocks become foliated. Slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss belong to the group of foliated metamorphic rocks. Marble and quartzite are non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

The structure of metamorphic rocks is of importance because it shows the nature of pre-existing rocks and the mechanism of metamorphic deformation. Every trace of original structure is of great importance to geologists. It gives an opportunity of analysing the causes of its metamorphism.

  Metamorphic rock, represent the oldest portion of the Earth's crust. They are mostly found in the regions of mountain belts where great dislocations on the Earth once took place.

 

Questions on the text:

 

    1) What does the word ‘metamorphic’ mean? 2) How have metamorphic rocks been formed? 3) Which rocks belong to the group of metamorphic? 3) Does gneiss have the same structure as granite? 4) Is the role of water great in metamorphism? 5) How does the amount of water affect (влияет на) the grade of metamorphic rocks? 6) What rocks do we call foliated? 7) What can you say about non-foliated metamorphic rocks? 8) Why is the structure of metamorphic rocks of importance? 9) Where do we find metamorphic rock?

 

UNIT 7 WEATHERING OF ROCKS

 

Words to be remembered:

 

weathering – выветривание; эрозия

to expose – подвергать

to decompose – разлагать, разрушать

decomposition = disintegration – разложение, распад, разрушение

influence – влияние

phenomenon (pl. phenomena) – явление

be referred to – упоминаться, называться

cause – причина

to take place – происходи