He is heir to a rich manufacturer.

Apposition: Margaret, daughter of a history professor, was work-
ing as secretary to a Labour member.
But usually we find the definite article here, e.g.
Predicative: She was the wife of a local tradesman.

One of these young men was the son of an eminent
writer.

Apposition: Ann, the daughter of the landlady, cooked break-
fast, for the boarders.

Then I was introduced to Charles March, the nephew
of our host.

Note. On the whole, with the nouns son and daughter used predicatively or in
apposition we find the following three variants:

a. She is the daughter of a doctor {which is the most common variant express-
ing mere relationship).

b. She is a daughter of a doctor (which expresses the idea that the doctor has
more than one daughter, the variant is not used unless this idea becomes im-
portant).

с She is daughter of a doctor (which describes the social position of the person
in question).

c) when nouns used predicatively serve to denote a certain
characteristic of the person indicated by the subject. The noun
predicative is usually followed by enough here. (This case is not
found with nouns in apposition.)

e.g. He isn't fool enough to believe that sort of thing.
She is woman enough to understand it.

d) when predicative nouns are used in clauses of concession
with inverted word-order.

e.g. Child though she was, she had suffered much.
Boy as he was, he was chosen their leader.

Constructions of this kind are characteristic only of literary
style.

Note. There is no article with the predicative noun in the phraseological units
to turn traitor, to turn pirate, to turn miser.

§ 24. In English there are a number of verbs which in the Ac-
tive Voice require the use of nouns as objective predicatives (a)
and in the Passive Voice — as subjective predicatives (b).

e.g. a) They thought him a prig.

They named the child John.
b) He was thought a prig.
The child was named John.

The number of verbs which can be used in sentences con-
taining an objective or a subjective predicative expressed by a
noun is limited. The most commonly used of them are: to appoint,
to call, to choose, to elect, to fancy, to imagine, to make, to
name, to think.

Note. There are a number of other verbs requiring the same construction but
they belong to literary style. Some of these verbs may be used both in the passive
and active constructions; others occur only in one of them.

The use of articles with nouns which serve as objective (a) and
subjective (b) predicatives is similar to that of predicative nouns
and nouns in apposition (see "Articles", § 23).

e.g. a) They appointed him a member of the delegation.

We elected him an honorary member of the Committee.
He fancied her the most wonderful woman in the world.
They chose him chairman of the Society.
They appointed him secretary of the new Committee.
b) He was appointed a member of the delegation.

He was elected an honorary member of the Committee.
She was thought the most impudent little flirt in London.
He was chosen chairman of the Society.
He was appointed secretary of the new Committee.

Note. In the sentences They took him prisoner and He was taken prisoner, They
called him names and He was called names we are dealing with set phrases.

§ 25. The rules given for the use of articles with predicative
nouns and nouns in apposition also hold good for nouns intro-
duced by as.

e.g. I regarded my uncle as a terrible tyrant.
He meant it as a joke but forgot to smile.
He went to the conference as the head of the delegation.
He acted as interpreter for Mr March.
They nominated him as Lord Treasurer of the Council.

Although the use of articles with nouns introduced by as is, on
the whole, similar to that with predicative nouns and nouns in ap-
position, there is a deviation from the general rule — the indefi-
nite article need not always be used after as.

e.g. Rebecca was now engaged as (a) governess.

The man had agreed to serve as (a) witness.

Mr Stapleton had persuaded a leather merchant to take my fa-
ther on as traveller ('коммивояжер').

"I can't see him doing much good as a traveller," said my
aunt.

Note. The above rules do not concern nouns introduced by as used for compar-
ison. In this case the articles are used in accordance with the general rules for
countable nouns.

e.g. The city looked to him as brilliant as a precious stone.
You were as white as the sheet in your hands.

§ 26. When nouns denoting titles, military ranks, or social
standing are followed by a proper name they are used without any
article, as in: Colonel Holmes, Doctor Smith, Professor Jones, Aca-
demician Fedorou, Lieutenant-General Rawdon, President Wilson,
Prime Minister Forbes, Queen Elisabeth, King George, Lord By-
ron, Lady Windermere, Sir William, etc. In such combinations
only the proper name is stressed.

Note 1. But we say: The doctor has come. The Prime Minister made an an-
nouncement yesterday.

Note 2. The definite article is used in such cases as the late Professor Smith,
the celebrated playwright Osborne.

Note 3. A foreign title followed by a proper name is used with the definite arti-
cle: the Baron Munchausen, the Emperor Napoleon III, the Tsar Peter the Great.

The article is not used with some nouns denoting close rela-
tionship when they are followed by names of persons, as in Aunt
Polly, Uncle Timothy, Cousin John.

Other common nouns, when, followed by proper names, are
used with the definite article, as in: the boy Dick, the student
Smith, the painter Turner, the composer Britten, the widow Dou-
glas, the witness Manning, the geologist Foster, the dog Bal
thasar, etc. In this case both the common noun and the proper

name are stressed.

Combinations as above are found not only with names of per-
sons but also with lifeless things and abstract notions, as in: the
planet Mars, the preposition on, the verb to be, the figure 2, etc.

Note, With names of persons in newspaper style there is a tendency to omit the
article in this case too. Thus we find:
e.g. World middleweight champion Dick Tiger said yesterday that he will retain his

title against American Gene Fullmer.

However, such combinations on the whole are not very com-
mon. More often we find a proper name followed by an appositive
common noun.

e.g. Britten, the modern English composer...
Turner, the celebrated English painter...
Manson, a promising young actor...

§ 27. The article is not used with nouns in appositive of-phras-
es when the head-noun denotes a title or a post,
e.g. They nominated candidates for the post of President and

Vice-President.

He got the degree of Master of Arts.

When I was a young man, the position of schoolmaster car-
ried with it a sense of responsibility.

§ 28. The article is not used in the adverbial pattern from -
to, in which the same noun is repeated after the prepositions, as
in: from tree to tree, from street to street, from town to town,
from day to day, etc. Such combinations are to be regarded аs
free combinations (not set phrases) as the number of nouns thus
used is practically unlimited. Care should be taken not to confuse

such free combinations with set phrases, which are somewhat sim-
ilar to the above mentioned pattern but limited in number:

a) from head to foot, from top to toe, from top to bottom, from
beginning to end, from South to North. (Here after the prepo-
sitions from... to we find two different nouns, not the same noun.
The number of such units is limited.)

b) hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder, face to
face, day by day. (The same noun connected by different preposi-
tions is repeated here. The number of such units is also limited.)
§ 29. There is no article with nouns in direct address.
e.g. "How is my wife, doctor?"
"Well, young man," said Eden with a smile, "what can I do
for you?"
§ 30. After the exclamatory what we find the indefinite article
with singular nouns.
e.g. "What a car!" she exclaimed.
I thought what an unhappy man he must be!
What a narrow-minded, suspicious woman Maria was!
With plural nouns there is no article, in accordance with the
general rules.

e.g. What marvellous books you've got!

It is noteworthy that no article is used after the interrogative
what modifying a noun.

e.g. What question did you want to ask me?

§ 31. The definite article is found within an of-phrase preceded
by one, some, any, each, many, most, none, all, several, the first,
the last, the rest, the majority.

e.g. "One of the letters is from Tom," she said.

Most of the lecturers had other jobs in the town.

Several of the boys knew that my father had "failed in busi-

Compare the above given combinations with: one letter, most
Lecturers, several boys, etc.

§ 32. There is a fluctuation in the use of articles in the follow-
ing type of combinations: a sort of (a) man, the sort of (a) man,
what sort of (a) man, this sort of (a) man, that sort of (a) man,
some sort of (a) man; a (the, some, what, this, that) kind of (a)
man, a (the, some, what, this, that) type of (a) man.

e.g. He showed us a new type of bulb.

"What sort of a day have you had?" I asked him.
I said: "It's not the sort of situation one laughs at."
It was too dark to see what kind of a house it was.
"What kind of car was it?" Ramsden asked.

The more commonly found variant is the one without any article.

THE USE OF ARTICLES WITH UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

The Use of Articles with Uncountable Abstract Nouns

§ 33. Abstract nouns, like concrete nouns, fall into two class-
es: countables and uncountables. ¹

Among abstract countable nouns we find, e.g. answer, belief,
conclusion, doubt, effort, fact, government, holiday, idea, job, lie,
mistake, opinion, plan, principle, promise, question, reply, sen-
tence, visit, word and many others.

Countable abstract nouns may be used in the singular and in
the plural.

e.g. He had a brilliant idea. I like their method of work.

He always had brilliant ideas. I like their methods of work.

The class of uncountable abstract nouns includes such nouns
as: anger, beauty, curiosity, excitement, freedom, grace, happiness,

¹ The division of nouns into these two classes is a matter of tradition and can
hardly be accounted for either semantically or grammatically.

impatience, jealousy, love, modesty, nervousness, pride, respect,
strength, time, violence, work and many others.

Uncountable abstract nouns are used only in the singular.

It is sometimes difficult to draw a line of division between
countable and uncountable nouns. Some abstract nouns are used
as countables in one meaning and as uncountables in another:

Uncountable Countable

work — работа a work — произведение

silence — тишина, молчание a silence — пауза

decision — решительность, a decision — решение

решимость
kindness — доброта a kindness — доброе дело

experience — опыт an experience — случай

из жизни
favour — милость, располо- a favour — одолжение

жение
failure — неудача, провал a failure — неудачное дело;

неудачник
society — общество a society — организация,

кружок

nature — природа a nature — натура, характер

grammar — грамматика a grammar — учебник

(наука) по грамматике

observation — наблюдение an observation — замечание

e.g. They walked in silence along the path.
After a long silence he began his story.
She spoke with decision.
You must carefully think before you take a decision.

He is a wicked person who is insensible to kindness.
If you write him you will be doing him a kindness.

He has been doing this kind of work for many years, so he

has a good deal of experience.
It was an unpleasant experience and he didn't speak of it.

There are also a number of abstract nouns which appear both
as uncountables and countables without any noticeable change of
meaning, e.g. chance, change, difficulty, language, profit, reason,
temptation, torture, trouble, war and some others.

Some of the nouns that generally tend to be uncountable are
in certain constructions regularly used with the indefinite article.
Here belong comfort, disgrace, disappointment, pity, pleasure, re-
lief, shame and some others. They are found with the indefinite
article when they are used as predicatives after a formal it as
subject (a) or after the exclamatory what (b):

e.g. a) It is a pleasure to see you.

It was a relief to know that she was safely home,
b) What a disappointment!
What a pity!

But we say: I'll do it with pleasure.
She gave a sigh of relief.
He now knew what disappointment was.
She felt pity for the poor child.

§ 34. The use of articles with countable abstract nouns does
not differ from their use with countable concrete nouns: in the
singular countable abstract nouns are used with the indefinite or
definite article; in the plural they are used without any article or
with the definite article.

e.g. He told the child a story.
He told the child stories.

The child knew the story he told.
The child knew the stories he told.

§ 35. As a general rule, uncountable abstract nouns are used
without any article.

e.g. Indifference and pride look very much alike, and he probably

thought I was proud.

I knew that generosity would have been wasted on him.
There was sharpness in her bones, sharpness in her voice,

sharpness in her eyes.
She had attached herself to youth and hope and seriousness

and now they failed her more than age and despair.
The absence of the article (the zero article) serves the same
purpose as the indefinite article with countable nouns, i.e. it per
forms the nominating function.

Cf, When in distress people look for a friend.
When in distress people look for friendship.
His desire was simply for a companion.
His desire was simply for companionship.

§ 36. The definite article is used with uncountable nouns when
they are modified by a limiting attribute, which may be expressed
in different ways.

e.g. He was in a state of the greatest excitement.

They were surprised at the curious silence into which he had
fallen.

He jumped at the abruptness of the question.
Sometimes the limitation is clear from the context.

• e.g. It was very still in the house. Suddenly a faint sound could

be heard in the stillness.
A moment afterwards the lights round the garden suddenly

went out. In the darkness we felt lost.
For a long time they walked without saying a word. Jim was

the first to break the silence.

The definite article is used here in its restricting function, to
denote a particular instance of the notion, expressed by the noun.

§ 37. The definite article is also found with substantivized ad-
jectives denoting abstract notions, e.g. the ordinary, the average,
the beautiful, the unusual, the supernatural, the extravagant, the
unknown, the regrettable, the normal, the grotesque, the unbear-
able, etc.

e.g. "You shouldn't think you're something out of the ordinary,"

she said.
"Do you believe in the supernatural?" he asked.

§ 38. The indefinite article is used with uncountable abstract
nouns when they are modified by a descriptive attribute which
brings out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun.
The attribute may be expressed in different ways.

e.g. A dull anger rose in his chest.

There seemed to be a wonderful excitement everywhere in

the world.

There was a tenderness in his voice that moved her.
She recognized a pleasant irony in his voice.
"Didn't you feel a certain impatience?" they asked.
His face had a calmness that was new to her.
She had a natural grace that was very attractive.
He had a patience which amazed his friends.

His new experience filled him with a singular enthusiasm.
•

The indefinite article is used here in its aspective function.
By way of exception the aspective indefinite article is some-
times used even when the noun has no attribute.

e.g. After a time a loneliness fell upon the two men.
There was a bitterness in her voice.

A loneliness means 'a certain loneliness' and a bitterness
means 'a certain bitterness' here.

It should be stressed that the use of the indefinite article with
uncountable abstract nouns is typical of literary style (see the ex-
amples above).

§ 39. Sometimes an uncountable abstract noun is used with an
attribute and yet has no article. This seems to contradict the gen-
eral rule, but it can actually be explained by the nature of the at-
tribute (a) or the nature of the noun (b).

a) In some cases the attribute does not bring out a special as-
pect of the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may ex-
press degree (e.g. great, perfect, sufficient, huge, tremendous, im-
mense, sheer, utter, complete, infinite, endless, major and some
others), or qualify the noun from the point of view of time (e.g.
modern, ancient, impending, eternal, daily, contemporary, fur-
ther, final, original), nationality (e.g. English, French, etc.), ge-
ography (e.g. Moscow, London, world, etc.), authenticity (e.g-
real, genuine, authentic, symbolic, etc.) or give it social charac-
teristic (e.g. bourgeois, capitalist, racial, religious, etc.).

e.g. I have perfect confidence in him.

She has great experience in her work.

I'm sure your work will give you complete satisfaction.

He had sufficient ability to carry out any complicated task.
The reward had only symbolic value.
I didn't think it had real importance.
They talked about modern poetry.
He was conscious of impending danger.
It's three o'clock by Moscow time.
Ron was particularly interested in ancient sculpture.
Mrs Peters, feeling instinctively that Greek architecture
would leave her cold, excused herself from the excursion.

Note. But the definite article is used with the combinations French poetry,
modern art, American literature, German philosophy, etc. if there is a limiting at-
tribute, as in: the Russian literature of that period, the French poetry of the 19th
century, etc.

b) Some nouns are never used with the indefinite article. They
are nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, process,
such as admiration, advice, applause, approval, assistance, concern,
encirclement, guidance, information, permission, progress, recogni-
tion, research, torture, trade ('торговля'), work and some others.

This rule applies also to the following nouns: change ('сдача'),
fun, health, luck, money, nature, news, {outer) space, weather and
some others.

e.g". I am not sure whether it is good news or bad.

He was anxiously waiting for permission to begin his experi-
ment.

As I knew, Mr March always expressed gloomy concern if
one of his children had a sore throat.
He wondered whether her silence was tacit approval.
He felt honest admiration for his colleague.

Note 1. It should be noted that in a considerable number of cases both factors,
i.e. the character of the attribute and the character of the noun, are found together,
e.g. She was making great progress.

They promised Jackson further assistance.

Note 2. Although the above mentioned nouns are never used with the indefinite
article, they can be used with the definite article,
e.g. He told me of the progress he was making.

The news was so upsetting that she said she would not see anyone that night,

Note 3. Notice the sentence patterns with the noun weather:
e. g. The weather is fine (cold, etc).

What is the weather like today?

If the weather changes...

We are having fine weather.

What cold weather we are having!

I wouldn't like to go out in such (bad) weather.

A spell of warm weather set in. (We had a spell of bad weather.)

They were discussing (talking about) the weather.

The flight was cancelled because of (the) bad weather.

Note 4. The noun wind is uncountable.

e.g. There isn't much wind today.

Yet it is regularly used with the definite article.

e.g. The wind was blowing and it was cold.
The wind is rising (falling).
He ran like the wind.

But if the noun wind is modified by a descriptive attribute it is used with the
aspective indefinite article,
e.g. A cold wind was blowing from the north.

For stylistic purposes it may be used in the plural,
e.g. The cold winds blew the leaves off the trees.

Note 5. Notice the sentence patterns with the noun life:
e.g. Life goes on, ever changeless and changing.
Life is worth living.
They began a new life.
They were leading a happy life.
The life he is leading now causes everyone distress.

§ 40. Sometimes the use of articles with an uncountable ab-
stract noun is affected by the syntactic function of the noun.

1) Nouns in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases of
manner have no article even if they have descriptive attributes.

Attributive prepositional phrases are usually introduced by
the preposition of (other prepositions may also be found, but not
often).

e.g. His flush of anger died as he began to listen more attentively.
An odd feeling of curiosity made him look through the keyhole.
He awoke with a feeling of sharp anticipation.
His face bore a look of cold disapproval.
He had an unsatisfied hunger for knowledge.

Adverbial prepositional phrases are usually introduced by the
preposition with, sometimes in. (other prepositions may also be
found in this case, but not often).

e.g. The old man looked at the boy with curiosity.

He turned round in annoyance, and then walked away.
"You have seen it?" he asked with intense interest.
Ann examined everything about her with great care.
She kissed him with warm affection.

The tendency to use the noun in attributive and adverbial
prepositional phrases without any article is so strong that some-
times even countable nouns have no article in these functions.

e.g. It is a question of principle, and it must be discussed before

we take a decision.
It was just a plain statement of fact.
He refused to help us without apparent reason.

He listened without remark while Robert poured out his heart
to him.
The young doctor was received in amiable fashion.
The door closed without sound.
He spoke with effort.

However, the use of the indefinite article in such cases is still
the norm with a vast majority of countable nouns.

Although the general tendency is to use abstract uncountable
nouns in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases without
articles, occasionally either the definite or the indefinite article
may be found.

The use of the definite article is generally associated with the
use of limiting attributes modifying the noun.

e.g. "May I speak to you in the strictest confidence?" he asked.
"No," said Eric after the slightest hesitation.
He watched her go from group to group with the same ease.
He trembled all over with the exertion of keeping himself up-
right.

The use of the indefinite article appears to be optional — it
seems to depend on the desire of the speaker to lay particular
stress on the special aspect expressed by the attribute modifying
the noun. Thus it would be correct to use the nouns in the follow-
ing examples without articles in accordance with the general rule.

e.g. We looked at her face and saw the distorting lines of a deep
and anxious weariness.

He smiled at me with a grave sympathy.
He walked in a solemn silence.

In some cases, however, the use of the indefinite article is
obligatory. It is always used in prepositional phrases in which the
noun is modified either by the adjectives certain said peculiar or by

an attributive clause.

e.g. The girl interrupted him with a certain impatience in her voice.
She spoke to strangers with a peculiar intimacy.
He gripped his hand with an abruptness that revealed his

emotion.
He entertained with an originality that pleased.

2) There is a tendency to use an uncountable abstract noun in
the function of a predicative without any article even if the noun
has a descriptive attribute.

e.g. The result of the experiment had been dismal failure.
"It was righteous punishment," he exclaimed.
When they were together, it was pure happiness.
I suspected that this was not just ordinary anxiety.

Prepositional phrases in the function of a predicative are usu-
ally set phrases. Care should be taken to learn the use of the arti-
cle in each case, e.g. to be in despair, to be in service, to be in pow
er, to be of (the) opinion, to be of importance, to be out of control,
to be in danger, to be out of danger, to be in a rage, to be in a
good (bad) humour, to be at a loss, to be in a hurry, etc.

The Use of Articles with Uncountable Concrete Nouns
(Names of Materials)

§41. Uncountable concrete nouns (names of materials) are
generally used without any article. The absence of the article has
nominating force.

e.g. These sleeping pills should be dissolved in water.

She had nothing in the medicine chest but toothpaste and
mouth-wash and shampoo.

Unlike uncountable abstract nouns, names of materials are
used without any article even if they are modified by a descrip-
tive attribute.

e.g. She said: "I knitted the socks myself of thick grey wool."
I ticked off the names written in violet ink.
He took out of his pocket an object wrapped in tissue paper.

§ 42. The definite article in its restricting function is used
with names of materials if they are restricted in their quantity or
by reason of locality.

e.g. The boss took up a pen and picked a fly out of the ink.
Together they walked through the slush and mud.
He observed everybody who came in, as they shook the thin
watery snow from their hats and coats.

Note 1. However, there is no restriction implied in such phrases and sentences
as: a bottle of milk, a cup of tea or The ground was covered with snow. The pond
was covered with ice.

Note 2. As is seen from the examples above, most uncountable concrete nouns
are names of materials. However, there are a few other uncountable concrete nouns
which are not names of materials (e.g. machinery, equipment, furniture and some
others). The same rules are applied to them.

e.g. She hoped she would save enough money to buy new furniture.
The furniture they had was enough for a much bigger house.

§ 43. Sometimes, owing to a change in meaning, names of ma-
terials become countable ^J and as such they are used with articles
in accordance with the rules for countable nouns. That means
that they may then be used with the indefinite article.

Names of materials become countable nouns in the following
cases:

a) when various sorts of food products and materials are meant,
e.g. They are now giving you bad teas in the club.

There is a beautiful display of cottons in the shop window.

b) when a portion of food or drink is meant,

e.g. If you want to please the boy, buy him an ice.

We went into the pub and I ordered two whiskies.
"A salad and two coffees will do," she said smiling.

¹ In the waters of the Pacific, the snows of Kilimanjaro or the sands of the
Sahara the plural does not signify any change in meaning but is purely a stylistic
device.

с) sometimes the change of meaning is quite considerable —
the noun comes to indicate an object made of a certain material,

e.g. A full glass of orange juice stood beside him.
There was a tin of sardines on the table.

The Use of Articles
with Some Semantic Groups of Nouns

§ 44. There are certain semantic groups of nouns which are
very common in English. These nouns are sometimes used as
countables and sometimes as uncountables. Besides, they are of-
ten found as part of set phrases. They include the following se-
mantic groups:

Names of Parts of the Day

§ 45. To this group of nouns belong: day, night, morning,
evening, noon, afternoon, midnight, dawn, twilight, dusk, sun
rise, sunset, daytime, nightfall and the like.

1) When the speaker uses these nouns he often means a par-
ticular day, night, etc. and then naturally the definite article is
used. The limitation is very often clear from the situation or the
context but it may also be expressed with the help of a limiting
attribute.

e.g. The night was warm and beautifully still.

He decided to spend the afternoon with his friends.
The weather was very cold on the day of his arrival.

Sometimes we find a descriptive attribute with nouns denoting
parts of the day, but the definite article will still be used if the
above mentioned limitation holds good.

e.g. I could see a few faint stars in the clear night.

I was not in a hurry, and walked along, basking in the warm
evening.

The definite article is also found with nouns denoting parts of
the day used generically.

e.g. He used to spend the morning lying about the beach.

I often sat up the night with him and read to him to ease his
pain.

2) When nouns indicating parts of the day have a descriptive
attribute and are the centre of communication in the sentence
. they are used with the indefinite article (in its aspective func-
tion). This use of the indefinite article is mainly found in the fol-
lowing sentence patterns:

e.g. It had been a wet day; the pavements were glistening, though
now the rain had stopped.

It was a fine, warm night and Charles and I decided to walk
home.

On a hot September evening he strolled idly to the embankment.
We were having tea in my room on a cold January after-
noon.

3) Nouns denoting parts of the day have no article when they
are used as predicatives.

e.g. It was evening when he decided to lay his books aside and
take a walk.

It was nearly midnight and neither of us had eaten for a long

time.

It was dusk but I could see Henry walking across the field.
However, if these nouns are used predicatively with a de-
scriptive attribute, the indefinite article is used (see point 2
above).

But the article is not used with nouns denoting parts of the
day if they are modified by one of the following adjectives:
e.g. It was early morning.

It was broad day.

It was high noon.

It was late evening.

The adjectives early, late, broad and high do not describe any
part of the day here, but just indicate the time of the day with
more precision. (Morning refers to a longer period of the day
than early morning or late morning.)

4) In many cases the use of articles with nouns denoting parts
of the day has become traditional.

a) In some prepositional phrases either the definite article or
no article is found. They are to be treated as set phrases. The def-
inite article is used in: in the afternoon, in the daytime, in the
evening, in the morning, in the night. No article is used after the
prepositions at, by, about, past, before, after, towards, till, until,
e.g. at night, at dawn, by day ('днем'), by night ('ночью'), by
noon ('к полудню'), by midnight ('к полуночи'), past noon, about
midnight, before dawn, after sunset, etc.

e.g. I would take pills at night to make me sleep quickly, but I
never found any pills that would keep me asleep till day-
light.

Rain was now falling in sheets as it so often did before dawn.

After midnight I walked to the beach with him, sad to see him
leave so soon.

b) There is no article with the nouns morning, day and dawn
when they are used as subject to the verbs to break, to be at hand;
the same is true of the nouns evening, night, dusk when they are
followed by the verbs to fall, to gather, to set in, to be at hand, to
come.

e.g. Day was breaking when we set out.

The sky was overcast and dusk fell early.

Dawn was breaking among the olives, silvering their still
leaves.

c) There is no article with nouns denoting parts of the day
when they are modified by the names of the days of the week and
the words tomorrow and yesterday.

e.g. I went to Aunt Milly's house on Friday evening.

He spoke to Lin on the telephone on Thursday afternoon.
I shall see him tomorrow morning.
She was here yesterday afternoon.

Note. Compare: We met on Saturday night ('Мы встретились в прошлую суб-
боту вечером') and We met on a Saturday night ('Мы встретились однажды суб-
ботним вечером').

d) There is no article in the following phrases: all day {long)
and all night (through) (but we say: all through the night and all
through the day), day after day, night after night, day in day

out, from morning till night, (to work) day and night, in the dead
of night, late at night (but early in the morning).

e) There is a tendency to use the nouns denoting parts of the
day without any article in attributive of-phrases. Yet, the definite
article is used when a particular day, night, etc. is meant.

e.g. He always woke up with the first sounds of morning.

After the bombardment he couldn't recognize the street that
had been so familiar to him at the beginning of the day.

Names of Seasons

§ 46. To this group of nouns belong: winter, spring, summer
and autumn (AmE: fall). The use of articles with these nouns pre-
sents great difficulty because we find a good deal of fluctuation
here.

1) The definite article is used with these nouns when reference is
made to a particular winter, spring, summer or autumn present,
past or future, or to a season of a particular year. As a general
rule, this limitation is clear from the situation or context, but it
may also be expressed by a limiting attribute. The nouns usually
have the function of subject in this case.

e.g. The summer was exceptionally trying in the town.

The winter was very fine that year and we were very happy.
The summer wore on. He was still working hard.
The autumn of 1914 was very warm.

But when these nouns are used as the subject to such com-
monly used verbs as to approach, to be over, to come, to come to
an end, to pass, to set in and some others, either the definite arti-
cle or no article is found. In this case reference may be made to a
particular season or to the kind of season in general.

e.g. (The) winter came early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall

of snow.

(The) summer was over but we had not heard from him yet.
In those parts (the) spring usually sets in early.

The same fluctuation is observed when names of seasons are
used in general statements as a subject to a nominal predicate.

e.g. (The) winter is very long here.

(The) summer is a rainy season on the island.

2) The definite article is generally found when names of sea-
sons serve as an object in the sentence. This is usually found after
the verbs to hate, to like, to love, to spend, to talk about, to wait
for and some others. In this case reference may be made to a par-
ticular season or to the kind of season in general,
e.g. He looks like somebody who spent the summer at the sea.

Dave loves the winter.

I liked the summer there, on account of the bathing, I think.

Sole. Although the use of the definite article is the norm in this case, occa-
sionally no article is found.

3) When names of seasons have a descriptive attribute and are
the centre of communication they are used with the indefinite ar-
ticle (in its aspective function).

e.g. We had a short summer.

He had passed a sluggish winter and a lazy summer.

4) When names of seasons are used as predicatives they have
no article.

e.g. It was summer and the place broke up in red flowers.

However, when these nouns in their predicative function are
modified by a descriptive attribute, the indefinite article is used
(see also point 3 above),
e.g. "It has been a terrible summer," he said.

"It was a remarkably fine autumn," she added.

But the article is not used with names of seasons if they are
modified by the adjectives early and late which do not describe
the season but serve to indicate the time of the year with more
precision. {Early summer means the first month of summer; late
autumn means the last month of autumn.)

e.g. It was early summer.
It was late autumn.

5) There is a great deal of fluctuation in the use of articles
with names of seasons when they are used as adverbial modifiers in
prepositional phrases. After the prepositions in, till, until, before

and after names of seasons may be used either with the definite
article or without any article. Reference again may be made to a
particular season or to the kind of season in general.

e.g. The sun in (the) summer warms the skin, but in (the) winter
when it appears it warms the heart.
In (the) autumn young Ben was to go to a preparatory school.
"Can't you wait until (the) winter?" Sam asked.
I don't think they'll be able to get through with the work be-
fore (the) winter.
But after the prepositions through, for and during the definite
article is to be used.
. Through the autumn, a busy time for me, I was often uneasy.
"Are you going to stay here for the winter?" Jack asked af-
ter a while.
He stayed in Paris during the summer and worked without a
break till autumn was well advanced.
6) In attributive of-phrases names of seasons usually have no
article, as in: the warmth of spring, the dust of summer, three
months of winter, the colours of autumn.

Note. Note the following set phrases used adverbially: (to work) winter and
summer, early (late) in the autumn (summer, etc.), all the winter (spring, etc.).

Names of Meals

§ 47. The group includes the nouns: breakfast, lunch, dinner,
supper and tea.

1) In the overwhelming majority of cases names of meals are
used without any article. In this case neither the function of the
noun nor its being part of a set phrase is essential.

e.g. Lunch is ready and we can go in.
Dinner was at an end.
I was having tea with her.
He came in when we were eating breakfast.
John came to lunch at the appointed time.
They met for dinner.
"Stay to tea," said Mrs Watson.
His eyes still bored me as they had done at tea.

2) The definite article is infrequent with names of meals. It is
used in a clear case of back reference or if there is a limiting at-
tribute.

e.g. The supper was very different from the one of the evening be-
fore.
The dinner was excellent, but Isabel noticed that John ate

very little.
He was greedily eating the lunch his mother had given him.

3) The indefinite article is used when names of meals are mod-
ified by descriptive attributes. The indefinite article has its aspec-
tive function.

e.g. I'll try to give you a decent lunch.
Walter wanted a very special dinner.

You can get a good supper here.

As soon as he was dressed, he went into the library and sat
down to a light French breakfast.

4) Occasionally, owing to a change of meaning, names of meals
become countable nouns. This occurs in the following cases:

a) when they denote dinner party, tea party, etc. Both the defi-
nite and the indefinite articles may be found here.

e.g. Fleur said: "We had a dinner last night."

I was having a wash and a brush-up before starting out to go

to the luncheon Elliot had invited me to.

Each Friday night Mr March used to give a dinner to the en
tire family.

b) when they denote a portion. In this case the noun is used
with the indefinite article denoting one.

e.g. I have not enough money to buy a dinner at such an ex-
pensive restaurant.
He wheedled a few francs out of me for a dinner and a bed.

Names of Diseases

§ 48. This group includes a considerable number of uncoun
table nouns, e.g. pneumonia, influenza (flu in colloquial English).

scarlet fever, cholera, diabetes, lumbago, cancer, diphtheria, tu-
berculosis (consumption), mumps and measles (the last two are
used with a singular verb), etc.

1) Names of diseases are generally found without any article,
as in most cases they are used just to name the kind of disease.

e.g. The doctor said he had pneumonia and told him to keep warm.
The boy Roger arrived home with measles.
He had a bad attack of lumbago.
He had almost died of cholera.
She was suffering from diabetes.
The boy had been ill for two days and his mother thought it

was scarlet fever.
She fell ill with flu.

2) The definite article may be used with names of diseases in a
clear case of back reference or if there is a limiting attribute.

e.g. The family were sitting around watching TV, recovering from

the flu.
After the diphtheria Jane felt very weak and depressed.

Note. Certain nouns which are not special medical terms are used to name dis-
eases. They may be countable or uncountable.

e.g. He had a (bad, splitting) headache.
He had a toothache.
He had a sore throat.
He had heart trouble.

I have a boil on my hand.
She had a bruise on her leg.

The Noun sea

§ 49. The noun sea is regularly found with the definite article.
This may be accounted for by different reasons. In some cases it
may be understood as a generic singular.

e.g. The sea covers nearly three fourths of the world's surface.
He always spends his holiday by the sea.

In other cases it is used with the individualizing definite article,
e.g. A cold wind was blowing from the sea.
Let's go for a swim in the sea.

Certain Countable Nouns in Their Phraseological Use

§ 50. There are a number of countable nouns in English, which
are often used without any article, as they undergo a change of
meaning and become uncountable.

§51. The nouns school, college, hospital, prison, jail, camp,
church, court, bed, table and occasionally market are used without
any article when, as part of set phrases, they lose their concrete
meaning and express the purpose which the objects denoted by these
nouns serve. Thus hospital comes to denote treatment, prison —
punishment, school — studies, bed — sleep, etc. Compare the fol-
lowing examples:

e.g. After lunch Dr Reily went off to the hospital.

"How long were you in hospital with that wound?" she asked.
They had a hospital in the town during the war.

Madame Duclerk sat at the table darning socks.

I asked her to tell me who all the people at table were.

In the cafe we had a table to ourselves, but those around us

were soon filled.

The road to the prison was blocked by policemen.
He would be sent to prison if he were caught.
Perhaps he was in a German prison.

I softly drew the chair to the bed and sat down.

He went to bed early, but lay awake for a long time.

I found a bed made up for me, and placed the candles on the

old-fashioned chest of drawers.

It should be noted that the use of a descriptive or limiting at-
tribute destroys the idiomatic meaning of the phrases in question.
See the examples above and also compare the following sentences:

e.g. He was sent to school.

He was sent to a secondary (good, public) school.

He was sent to the best school in the town.

§ 52. The noun town in some prepositional phrases may be used
without any article when it means the centre or business part of a
town, the town one lives in, or the nearest town to a country place-

e.g. She drove into town and drew up at the curb beside the drugstore.
I called up and asked her if she wouldn't prefer to lunch in

town.
I thought that he would be out of town next week.

§ 53. A considerable number of different nouns when used in
adverbial prepositional phrases have no article, e.g. by train, by
plane, by boat, by coach, by bus, by tram, by taxi, by air, by car, by
sea, by post, by mail, by phone, by radio, by accident, by mistake,
by hand, by chance, by letter, by land, by sight, at hand, off hand,
[ in detail, in person, on board, on deck, on foot, on tiptoe, at sea, to
sea, on hand, on leave, on business, on holiday, etc.

e.g. It was nearly eight o'clock, and I had to go home by taxi.

I had already told her by telephone about my talk with

Keats.
You needn't tell me about it in detail.

§ 54. There is no article in a number of combinations con-
sisting of a preposition + a noun + a preposition. Such set phras-
es are to be treated as compound prepositions, e.g. in addition to,
in charge of, in contrast with, in regard to, in support of, in reply
to, in connection with, on account of, in comparison with, in con-
formity with, in honour of, in memory of, in pursuit of, in favour
of, in combination with, in answer to, in defiance of, with regard
to, in recognition of, in return for, in place of, in relation to, in search of, by reason of, by way of, etc.

e.g. I rushed through the passage in search of my mother.
My father found himself in charge of a factory.
However, in some other set phrases built up on the same pat-
tern the definite article is used, e.g. under the influence of, in the
centre of, on the invitation of, by the side of, in the middle of, on
the initiative of, under the pretence of, etc.

§ 55. There is no article in some combinations consisting of a
preposition 4- a noun + a conjunction which are on the way of beco-
ming compound conjunctions, e.g. for fear that, on condition that.

However, in some cases the definite article is found, as in: on
the ground that, for the reason that.

§ 56. The definite article is used in the following set phrases: to
the forest, in (to, across) the fields, to (at) the cinema, to (at) the
theatre, to the pictures, to (in) the country, on the spot, in the
slums, in the trenches. (Note, however, that the nouns museum,
picture gallery, concert, exhibition do not form such set phrases.)

e.g. I took Marian aside and asked her to come for a walk. We

went to the fields.

We had an early dinner and went to the theatre.
"Oh," he said, "Sarah*s come in. She's been to the pictures."
I knew that Aunt Lin would not ring up because it was her

afternoon at the cinema.

But if these nouns indicate a particular object, the articles are
used with them in accordance with the general rules. But this
case is not common.

e.g. We found that the film was on at a cinema across the river.
Charles suggested that we should have a meal and go to a the-
atre.

§ 57. The definite article is also used in the following set
phrases: to play the piano, to play the violin and the like. But no
article is found in the combinations: to play volleyball., to play
hockey, to play golf, to play cards and the like.

The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting
Unique Objects

§ 58. There are a number of nouns in English denoting either
concrete objects or abstract notions which are considered to be
unique. These nouns are neither countable nor uncountable as, on
the one hand, they express oneness but, on the other hand, the
idea of more-than-oneness, is inconceivable in connection with
them ¹. Such nouns are used with the definite article as reference
is always made to the same object or notion. They include:

¹ Occasionally some of these nouns are used in the plural for stylistic purposes.
e.g. The morning skies were heavy with autumn mists.

1) names of unique objects, such as the sun, the moon, the
earth, the world, the globe, the universe, the Milky Way, the
ground, the cosmos, the atmosphere.

e.g. The sun was falling flat across the field and the grass was

pale with it.

We had been there all day, the whole party of us; the ground
was littered with our picnic.

Even when these nouns have descriptive attributes they may
be used with the definite article in accordance with the rule stat-
ed above.

e.g. Only the yellow light of the low autumn moon ruffled the water.
The stars were quivering in the frosty sky.

However, the indefinite article in its aspective function may
also be used in this case. Then attention is focused on the noun
and it becomes the centre of communication, which is as usual
marked by strong stress.

e.g. There was a splendid tropical moon and a soft breeze last

night.
It was a glorious night, with a great full moon gleaming in a

purple sky.
My first reply was: "Of course, I want to see a better world."

It should be noted that the above use is typical of literary style.

2) names of unique notions, such as the present, the past, the
future, the singular, the plural, the South, the North, the East, the
West, the equator, the horizon, the post, the press, the telegraph,
the telephone, the radio. But: TV, {the) television.

e.g. The film star had a particular smile for the press.

presently the sun rose over the horizon.
I knew that the future was going to be full of pain for me.
"The telephone in this town," Hallam said, "is as private as
the radio."
Note. The above rule does not concern the nouns radio and telephone indicating
concrete objects,
Somewhere a radio softly played.

The use of articles with these nouns modified by descriptive
attributes is the same as that with nouns denoting unique objects.

Compare: Even the distant future looked quite gloomy to him.

Everyone believed that he had a brilliant future before
him.

Note. Note the following set phrases: at present ('в настоящее время'), in the
past ( 'в прошлом'), in the future ('в будущем'), in future ('отныне', 'впредь').

The Use of Articles with Proper Names

§ 59. The use of articles with proper names seems to be based
mainly on tradition.

It is true that some cases might be accounted for historically.
Thus we can say that the use of articles with names of certain
countries is due to foreign usage: the Senegal, the Tyrol. In other
cases the article may be due to the ellipsis of a common noun
which was formerly added: the Sahara (desert), the Crimea (pen
insula), the Pacific (ocean), the Baltic (sea), the Bedford (hotel),
the Lancet (magazine). In the Urals the use of the definite article
may be explained by the fact that the noun originates from the
name of a mountain range; the Congo may have the article be-
cause the name originally denotes the river. Names of rivers are
used with the definite article because formerly the noun river of-
ten preceded the proper name: the river Thames.

Although historical explanations of that kind may be con-
vincing, they are not of great help from the viewpoint of present-
day English. In modern English the use of articles with proper
names lacks regularity and so does not always seem consistent.

Proper names fall into various groups, such as names of per-
sons, geographic names, names of newspapers and magazines,
boats, hotels, public buildings, etc. Moreover, geographic names
may be divided into subgroups, such as names of countries, con-
tinents, cities and towns, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, islands,
peninsulas, etc. The use of articles with each of the above men-
tioned groups and subgroups has peculiarities of its own. Within
each group there are typical cases and individual cases. Hence,
it is necessary to describe the use of articles with each group
separately.