Expressions of Absence of Necessity

§ 121. The main verbs expressing necessity are: must, to have
to, to be to, should and ought to.

Yet care should be taken to remember that the verbs must, to
be to, should and ought to in their negative forms do not express
absence of necessity (see the use of these verbs above).

Absence of necessity is expressed by the negative forms of to
have to and need.

In the present tense:

e.g. You don't have to go there.
You needn't go there.

The two verbs generally differ in that needn't + infinitive in-
dicates that the speaker gives authority for the non-performance
of some action, whereas don't (doesn't) have + infinitive is used
when absence of necessity is based on external circumstances.

Cf. You needn't come here. (I'll manage everything without your

help.)

You don't have to come to the Institute tomorrow. (There
will be no lectures tomorrow.)

In the past tense (where the regular form of the verb need is
found) the two verbs are similar in meaning. They both indicate
that there was no necessity, and hence no action. But to need is
not in common use.

e.g. You did not have to go there.
You did not need to go there.

Note. Care should be taken not to use You needn't have gone there as an ex-
pression of absence of necessity because it means that an action was carried out
though it was unnecessary.

FORMS EXPRESSING UNREALITY

§ 122- As has been said above, owing to certain historical chang-
es. we find a variety of forms expressing unreality in present-day
English (see also "Verbs", § 73).

These forms are:

1) the plain stem of the verb for all persons (a survival of the
old Subjunctive Mood),

e.g. Ivory insisted that he be present, in the most friendly fashion

imaginable.
They proposed that he borrow the money from the bank.

2) were for all persons (also a survival of the old Subjunctive
Mood),

e.g. I wish I were ten years younger.

3) the form of the Past Indefinite,
e.g. He looked as if he knew about it.

4) the form of the Past Perfect,

e.g. He looked as if he had seen a ghost.

5) should (for the first person, singular and plural) or would
(for the other persons) + infinitive,

e.g. If I had a garden I should grow tulips in it.
If he had a garden he would grow tulips in it.

6) should (for the first person, singular and plural) or would
(for the other persons) + Perfect infinitive,

e.g. If it hadn't rained I should have gone for a walk.
If it hadn't rained he would have gone for a walk.

7) should (for all persons) + infinitive,

e.g. I insist that he should meet us at the station.

8) would (for all persons) + infinitive,
e.g. I wish he wouldn't interrupt me.

9) may (might) + infinitive,

e.g. I'm telling you this so that you may write to your parents

about it.

I told you that so that you might write to your parents
about it.

10) can (could) + infinitive,

e.g. I'm telling you this so that you can write to your parents

about it.

I told you that so that you could write to your parents
about it.

11) were to (for all persons) 4- infinitive,

e.g. If he were to discover the truth he would never speak to us
again.

§ 123. All these forms denoting unreality may be subdivided
into two groups according to their meaning.

Some of them are used to represent an action as hypothetical,
i.e. the speaker does not know whether the action will take place
or not, the realization of the action is doubtful, questionable.

e.g. Most of them insisted that the proposal be discussed without

delay.
They suggested that Meg should stay with them for another

week.

Other forms express actions contradicting reality, i.e. actions
which cannot be realized.

e.g, I wish I had seen the procession.

If I were a writer I should write detective stories.

§ 124. The forms described above can be classified in the fol-
lowing way:

1) Of all the forms expressing unreality only one may be found
in the same syntactic structures as the Indicative Mood. The choice
between the two forms is based on meaning (see also "Verbs",
§§154-159).

This form is built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary
verbs should/would + infinitive. Although should is generally used
for the first person, singular and plural, and would for the other
Persons, there is a strong tendency in present-day English to use
Would for all persons. This fluctuation in the use of should and
Would disappears in spoken English where the contracted form 'd +
infinitive is used.

The form has two tenses: the present tense should/would + in
finitive which is used with reference to the present or future (a),
and the past tense should/would + Perfect infinitive which refers
the action to the past (b).

e.g. a) I should be glad to see him (if I had a chance).

b) I should have been glad to see him (if I had had a chance).

The use of should be glad in (a) is opposed to the Indicative
Mood in / am glad to see him or / shall be glad to see him. The use
of should have been glad in (b) is opposed to the Indicative Mood
in / was glad to see him.

Similarly, He would go there with pleasure (if it were possible)
is opposed to He will go there with pleasure; He would have gone
there with pleasure to He went there with pleasure.

This form may be called the Conditional Mood. It represents
an action as contradicting reality. The action is unreal because it
depends on an unreal condition; as the condition cannot be real-
ized, the action that depends on it cannot be fulfilled either.

In accordance with its meaning the Conditional Mood is often
used in the principal clause of a complex sentence of unreal condi-
tion.

e.g. If he were not ill he would come.

If he had not been ill he would have come.

2) The only forms of the old Subjunctive Mood that have sur-
vived in English are:

a) The form of the plain verb stem for all persons. It repre-
sents an action as hypothetical. It is used only in certain types of
subordinate clauses (see "Verbs", §§ 129, 131, 140).

e.g. He proposed that the plan be adopted.

It is necessary that you say it in his presence.

This form has no tense distinctions. In its use it is inter-
changeable with should + infinitive in definite types of subordi-
nate clauses and is mostly found in American English.

Traditionally this form is called the Subjunctive Mood.

b) The form were for all persons. It serves to show that an ac-
tion contradicts reality and is also used in certain types of subor-
dinate clauses (but not in the same types as the form of the plain
verb stem) (see "Verbs", §§ 132, 133, 136, 144, 146).

e.g- If I were you I should not accept his offer.
I wish he were here.

The form were refers the action to the present or to the future.
In some syntactic structures it is now often replaced by was.

3) As the formal difference between the Indicative Mood and
the Subjunctive Mood has in many cases disappeared, the forms of
the Past Indefinite (a) and the Past Perfect (b) came to express
unreality in English.

a) The form of the Past Indefinite is used to express an action
contradicting reality with reference to the present or future. This
use of the Past Indefinite is found in certain types of subordinate
clauses (see "Verbs", §§ 132, 133, 136, 144, 146).

e.g. If I knew it, I should tell you about it.
I wish I knew it.

Thus the Past Indefinite performs two different functions in
English: its main function is to represent an action as a fact re-
ferring to the past; but it may also represent an action as contra-
dicting reality with reference to the present or future.

Further in describing the use of the forms of unreality the
form were will be included among the forms of the Past Indefinite,
because they are used in the same constructions and with the same
meaning. It should be mentioned that were with the first and third
persons singular is often replaced by was in present-day English.

b) Parallel to the use of the form of the Past Indefinite, the
form of the Past Perfect came to represent actions contradicting re-
ality in the past. The Past Perfect is used in the same types of sub-
ordinate clauses as the Past Indefinite when it expresses unreality.

e.g. If I had known it, I should have told you about it.
I wish I had known it.

Thus actions contradicting reality are expressed in present-day
English by means of tense shift. The Past Indefinite is used to ex-
press unreality in the present, the Past Perfect has the same
function in the past.

4) Other means of expressing unreality in present-day English
aге combinations of modal verbs with an infinitive. They are
Mainly found in definite types of subordinate clauses (see "Verbs",
§§129, 131, 132, 135, 138, 140, 143, 149).

e.g. He suggested that we should join them.

If he were to get the job he would go on with his studies.

It should be noted that the modal phrase should (for all per-
sons) + infinitive is used in the same sentence patterns as the
Subjunctive Mood. The two forms exist side by side.

e.g. I suggest that he go (should go) with us.

It is necessary that he go (should go) with us.

In British English the difference between the two forms is sty-
listic: should + infinitive is in common use and may be found in
any style, whereas the use of the Subjunctive Mood is restricted
to the language of official documents and to high prose. In Amer-
ican English the Subjunctive Mood is generally preferred.

§ 125. To sum up all the forms described above, it is possible
to say that unreality is expressed in present-day English by the
following means:

a) by mood forms;

b) by the tense shift;

c) by modal phrases.

§ 126. All these means of expressing unreality may have the
continuous (a) and passive (b) forms if the lexical meaning of the
verb admits of that and when it is required by the situation.

e.g. a) If he were not reading now we'd turn on the radio.

If he were in Moscow they would be showing him the city.
He looked at me as if he were wondering what they had on

their minds.
b) They proposed that the meeting be adjourned (should be

adjourned).
If he had been sent for at once he might have saved us a

lot of trouble.
He wished he had been told about it.

§ 127. Before describing the use of the various forms of unre-
ality it is necessary to understand the factors which determine
their choice.

 

1) Sometimes the choice between the Indicative Mood and this
or that particular form of unreality depends on the structure of
the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate clause in
which this form occurs, and in certain cases even on the lexical
character of the predicate verb in the principal clause. This may
be termed as the structurally dependent use of forms expressing
unreality.

2) In other cases the choice is independent of the structure of
the sentence and is determined by the attitude of the speaker to-
wards the actions expressed in the sentence. This may be termed
as the independent (or free) use of forms expressing unreality.

3) In a limited number of cases the use of forms expressing
unreality has become a matter of tradition and is to be treated as
set phrases, as other sentences cannot be built up on their pat-
terns. This may be termed as the traditional use of forms ex-
pressing unreality.

The following will be a description of forms expressing unreal-
ity in accordance with this division.

Structurally Dependent Use of Forms
Expressing Unreality

The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in Object Clauses

§ 128. In object clauses the use of different forms of the predi-
cate depends on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the
principal clause.

As a rule, we find the Indicative Mood in object clauses after
most verbs.

e.g. We know (that) he is doing very well in his studies.
They thought (that) he had given up his idea.
He said that he would soon be back.

As is well known, the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be
observed here.

Note. Care should be taken to remember that in object clauses after expressions
of regret, surprise, sometimes pleasure or displeasure the emotional should can be
used alongside the Indicative Mood (see "Verbs", § 109, 2a).

§ 129. However, after certain verbs and expressions we find
forms of unreality in object clauses.

Thus should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is used after
expressions of suggestion, order or decision such as to decide, to
demand, to give instructions, to give orders, to insist, to make up
one's mind, to move, to order, to propose, to recommend, to re
quest, to require, to suggest, to urge and also after to arrange, to
be anxious, to be determined, to prefer and to take care.

e.g. Con demanded that Andrew should return to the house with
him to tea.

She urged that they go to Europe.

He had given instructions that everything possible should be
done.

He was determined that they should see everything.

But if I write about war, self-respect demands that occasion-
ally I share the risks.

He requested me as a favour that I should report to him any
"points of interest" that I might pick up on my visits
there.

The situation required that he be courteous.

In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows
the action of the principal clause. Therefore, this should is never
combined with the Perfect infinitive.

Object clauses after expressions of order and suggestion are
generally introduced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection
is less frequent. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not ob-
served in object clauses of this type.

e.g. They propose(d) that the issue should be discussed in a week.
They propose(d) that the issue be discussed in a week.

§ 130. In object clauses subordinated to the principal clause
with it as a formal subject we find the Indicative Mood after such
expressions as it is wonderful (natural, strange, singular, absurd-
terrible, monstrous, queer, odd, etc.) it infuriated (outraged-
startled, surprised, puzzled) me and the like. The Indicative Mood
is also used after it is possible (likely, probable) in affirmative
sentences.

e.g. But it's natural that you come to get used to things.
It's just possible that.he left them alone.
It's wonderful that you carry such petty details in your head.
It's hardly likely that anyone will bother to go into it this af-
ternoon.

Clauses of this kind are usually introduced by the conjunction
that; asyndetic connection is not common.

Care should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of
tenses when the Indicative Mood is used.

e.g. It is strange that he behaves like that.
It was strange that he behaved like that.
It is strange that he behaved like that at the party.
It was strange that he had behaved like that at the party.

Note. As has been shown in § 109, 2, the emotional should may be used in the
above cases too. In contrast to the Indicative Mood, it adds emotional colouring to the
statements, though in both cases actual facts are referred to. However, after it is pos
sible (likely, probable) in affirmative sentences the Indicative Mood is the rule.

§ 131. Yet, after certain other expressions in the principal
clause the modal phrase should + infinitive or the Subjunctive
Mood is always used in the object clause. They are expressions of
necessity or recommendation, such as it is necessary (important,
vital, imperative, essential, urgent, advisable, desirable); we also
find these forms after the Passive Voice of some verbs expressing
suggestion, order, decision, such as it is suggested (proposed, re-
quired, demanded, requested, recommended, decided, agreed, deter-
mined, arranged).

e.g. It is necessary at times that certain persons should be encour-
aged.

"It is necessary that they be careful in the lab," he added.

It is advisable that she should have someone to keep an eye
on her,

"It's so important that they should know the right things
from the beginning," Isabel had explained.

It was agreed beforehand that he should have the first shot.

He says it's quite essential that you do it after supper.

It's been suggested that I should join one of the public ser-
vices.

In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows
the action of the principal clause. Therefore, should is never com-
bined with the Perfect infinitive in such constructions.

As a rule, object clauses after all those predicates are also intro-
duced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection is not common.

Note that the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed
when should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is used.

e.g. It is arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to himself.
It was arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to

himself.

§ 132. In object clauses after the verb to wish we find the form
of the Past Indefinite (or the form were) or the Past Perfect to ex-
press a wish which cannot be fulfilled or a hardly realizable wish.

e.g. I wish I deserved your compliments. I don't.
I wish you had asked me anything but that.
I wish it were true.
I wished that Thomas hadn't brought me there.

Note. For a realizable wish other verbs and constructions are used,

e.g. I want to see him.
I want him to come.
I should like to talk to you.
I should like him to call me up.
I wish to see it for myself.
I wish him to do something for me.

Object clauses after the verb to wish are usually joined to the
principal clause asyndetically, though sometimes the conjunction
that is found.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this
construction. In object clauses after the verb to wish the tense
forms indicate the following:

a) The use of the Past Indefinite form shows that the action of
the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal
clause,

e.g. I wish(ed) he were with us.

b) If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the
principal clause, the form of the Past Perfect is used.

e.g. I wish(ed) he had stayed at home.

c) When the action of the object clause follows that of the
principal clause, we find the modal verbs would + infintive, might
+ infinitive and could + infinitive in the subordinate clause.

e.g. I wish(ed) the child would show more affection for me.
I wish(ed) I could drop the whole matter.
I wish(ed) you might stay with us a little longer.

Note 1. However, could + infinitive and might + infinitive may also be used to
express a simultaneous action.

e.g. I wish 1 could understand you.
I wish he might be here.

Note 2. It should be noted that would + infinitive is not common with the
first person.

As all these forms express an unrealizable wish, they serve as
expressions of regret rather than wish. That is why they may be
rendered in Russian in two ways. Thus the sentence / wish I knew
it, where the actions in both clauses are simultaneous, may be
translated as Как бы мне хотелось это знать or Как жаль,
что я этого не знаю. When the action of the subordinate clause
precedes that of the principal clause, there is only one way of ren-
dering such sentences in Russian, namely Как жаль, что... For
example, the sentence / wish I had told him about it is translated
as Как жаль, что я не рассказал ему об этом. Thus, where the
verb in the object clause is affirmative in English, it is negative in
Russian, and vice versa.

e.g. I wish I had told him the truth. (Как жаль, что я не сказал

ему правды.)
I wish I hadn't acted like that. (Как жаль, что я так поступил.)

When the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the
principal clause, it is not necessary to translate the modal verbs
into Russian; the usual way of rendering such sentences is Как бы

мне хотелось....

e-g. I wish he would tell me everything. (Как бы мне хотелось,

чтобы он все мне рассказал.)

I wish I could (might) go round the world. (Как бы мне хоте-
лось объехать весь мир.)

Note. I wish you would + infinitive has become a set phrase and is an equiva-
lent of the Imperative Mood; it is emotionally coloured.

e.g. I wish you would keep quiet.
I wish you would stop it.

Compare it with the Russian Да перестань же ты, наконец.

§ 133. After the idiomatic phrase it is time (also it is high
time, it is about time) we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or
the form were).
e.g. "Now let's talk." "Yes," she said quietly, "it's time we did,

Arnie." (= пора бы)
It's high time we got rid of our old furniture. (= давно пора

бы)

It's high time you were in bed too, my child.
He said: "It's time we ordered dinner."
Clauses of this kind are usually joined to the principal clause

asyndetically.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this

kind of clauses.

e.g. It's time we had lunch.
It was time we had lunch.

§ 134. After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be fear-
ful, to be frightened, to be in terror, to be nervous, to be terrified,
to be troubled, to fear, to have apprehension, to tremble and others,
we commonly find the Indicative Mood in the object clause. Care
should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses.

e.g. I am afraid nothing has been done yet.
She was afraid that he had seen her.
I was afraid you were going to strike him.

§ 135. Occasionally we also find may + infinitive in object
clauses after expressions of fear. The rules of the sequence of
tenses are also observed in this case.

e.g. She's afraid he may miss his only chance.

She was afraid he might miss his only chance.

But in literary style, object clauses are sometimes introduced
by the conjunction lest. In this case should + infinitive (rarely the
Subjunctive Mood) is used in the object clause. The rules of the
sequence of tenses are not observed here.

e.g. They were terrified lest someone should discover their secret
hiding place.

An hour before his train was due he began to have apprehen-
sion lest he should miss it.

He seemed nervous lest, in thus announcing his intentions,
he should be setting his granddaughter a bad example.

§ 136. In object clauses introduced by the conjunctions if and
whether after expressions of doubt and negative expressions we
sometimes find the form were.

e.g. He would wonder for a moment, looking into her shining

eyes, if it were true.

He did not ask himself if she were pretty.
When they were back in their seats, Maurice asked Adeline if

she were still enjoying the play.

Generally we find the Indicative Mood in such clauses; the use
of the above mentioned form is characteristic of literary style; it
is a survival of the old use of the Subjunctive Mood.

The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality
in Appositive and Predicative Clauses

§ 137. In appositive clauses which are usually introduced by
the conjunction that the use of different forms of the predicate
depends on the lexical character of the noun they modify.

As a rule, the Indicative Mood is found in this kind of clauses.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case.

e-g. The idea that he thought himself anything but intelligent

was absurd.

He is under the impression that I am hiding something from
him.

§ 138. But should + infinitive (or rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is
used in appositive clauses after nouns expressing order, suggestion,
wish, agreement and decision, such as agreement, ambition, decision,
demand, desire, order, proposal, recommendation, request, require
ment, suggestion, understanding, wish and some others.

e.g. He told me of his desire that all should be happy as long as it

involved no inconvenience to himself.
He had supported them for years, but on the understanding

that they should live in Europe.
I'm afraid you'll have to go to him with the suggestion that

he dismiss the case.
There was no likelihood that anyone should be there.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this case.

§ 139. The same rules hold good for predicative clauses — gen-
erally the Indicative Mood is used in them.
e.g. The question is how we are going to find the means to do it.

The fact was that I hardly knew what to say.

The trouble is that he didn't find him in.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are observed in this case.

§ 140. But when the subject of the principal clause is ex-
pressed by one of such nouns as aim, arrangement, condition, de-
cision, idea, plan, proposal, suggestion, wish and some others,
should + infinitive is used in the subordinate clause. The rules of
the sequence of tenses are not observed,
e.g. My suggestion is that as soon as the rain lets up we should

go along there and see what we can do.

His desire was that life should fall in with his own limited
but deliberate plans.

The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality
in Adverbial Clauses

§ 141. Forms expressing unreality are found in clauses of pur-
pose, comparison, concession and in both the principal and the
subordinate clause of a conditional sentence.

Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

§ 142. An adverbial modifier of purpose is usually expressed
by an infinitive when the agent of that infinitive is the same as
the subject in the sentence.

e.g. He said that he was going out to buy some stationary.
He went up to his room to change.

The infinitive may sometimes {though not often) be preceded
by in order or so as.

e.g. I had to keep drinking coffee in order to stay awake.

You'd better wait outside so as to be at hand if I want you.

So as is more often used to introduce a negative infinitive,
e.g. She sat still so as not to disturb the dog.

§ 143. A subordinate clause of purpose is found when the sub-
ject of this clause is not the same as the subject of the principal
clause.

Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction so that
(sometimes that or in order that, both of which are characteristic
of literary style, and so, which is colloquial). The predicate in
these clauses is expressed by may or can + infinitive and the
rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case.

e.g. As you go, leave the door open so that the light from the
lamp may show you some of the way down.

She dressed quickly for dinner so that she might see him the
sooner.

You'll have to come into the hospital so that we can keep you
under observation.

He slid out of bed, felt his way over to the door of the room,
and opened it a little so that he could hear what the wom-
en were saying.

If the verb in the subordinate clause is in the negative form,
should + infinitive is preferred.

e-g. I stood up, my back turned so that he should not see my face.
"Sit down," he said, dropping his voice so that the two men
in the room should not hear.

In literary style we sometimes find clauses of purpose intro-
duced by the conjunction lest (чтобы... не). ^l In this case should +
infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the subordinate
clause. As the conjunction lest is negative in meaning, the verb is
in the affirmative form,
e.g. An access of joy made him shut his eyes lest tears should

flow from them, (...чтобы из них не потекли слезы.)
Не withdrew his eyes lest she should read them.
Lest he freeze, he wore a ragged sweater over the ensemble.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here.
Sometimes, though not often, the Indicative Mood (the Future
Indefinite) is used in adverbial clauses of purpose instead of mod-
al phrases.

e.g. I, too, want to live in London so that the children will have
someone to turn to in case anything should happen to them.
She gave him the key so that he would lock the car.

Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

§ 144. In clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions
as if or as though we find the form of the Past Indefinite includ-
ing the form were for all the persons or the Past Perfect.

The form of the Past Indefinite (or Continuous) shows that
the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the ac-
tion of the principal clause.

e.g. He asked me the question as if the answer were really impor-
tant to him.

He looks as though he had plenty of determination.
They passed her in silence, with their noses in the air, as

though she did not exist.
Her lips moved soundlessly, as if she were rehearsing.

Note. In contemporary English the form were is sometimes replaced by was in
the 1st and 3d persons singular,
e.g. He behaves as if he was the boss here.

¹ This conjunction should not be confused with the homonymous conjunction lest
which is used to introduce object clauses after expressions of fear. The latter is not
negative in meaning.

The form of the Past Perfect (Continuous) shows that the action
of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the principal clause.

e.g. Bosinney gazed at him as though he had not heard.

The dog rushed at me and licked my hands in a frenzy of de-
light as if I had been away a long time.

He sounded breathless on the telephone as though he had
been running.

If the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of
the principal clause, would + infinitive is used.

e.g. She sank back on her chair and leaning her head on her hands

began to weep as though her heart would break.
She looked up at me defiantly as if she would turn on me that
very moment.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in such
clauses.

Note 1. Compare complex sentences with a clause of comparison in Russian and
in English.

e.g. Она смотрела на меня так, словно не узнавала меня. — She looked at me as

if she did not recognize me.

Он говорил о фильме так, будто он сам его видел. — Не spoke of the film
as if he had seen it.

In Russian it is generally necessary to use the correlative так in the principal
clause, whereas in English it is not required.

Note 2. Clauses introduced by as if and as though are treated as predicative
clauses when they follow the verbs to look, to sound, to feel.

e.g. At first he sounded as though he were trying to avoid a scene.
She was so ill that for days it looked as if she would die.
The man looked as though he had once been a miner.

Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condition

§ 145. Complex sentences with a subordinate clause of condi-
tion (conditional sentences) ¹ may be divided into two groups: sen-
tences of real condition and sentences of unreal condition.

¹ In conditional sentences forms expressing unreality are used in both the princi-
pal clause and in the subordinate clause (the if-clause), whereas in all the previously
described types of sentences forms expressing unreality are found only in subordinate
clauses.

In sentences of real condition we find the Indicative Mood.
They usually refer to the future, so the Future tense is used in
the principal clause and the present tense in the if-clause.

e.g. If you continue in this way you'll break your mother's heart.
You won't be believed if you tell the truth.

Sentences of real condition may also refer to the present or
past, though not very often.

e.g. I always lose money if I bet.

In the evenings we played chess or strolled about if it was

fine.

It should be noted that sentences of the latter kind express
regularly occurring actions.

Clauses of condition are usually joined to the principal clause
by means of the conjunction if and are therefore called if-clauses.
There are other conjunctions which serve to introduce clauses of
condition, but their use is not so common. They are: unless, in
case, supposing (suppose) that, providing (provided) that, on condi
tion that.

Note. If has the most general meaning of all the conjunctions introducing
clauses of condition. Its use is not restricted in any way, whereas all the other
conjunctions are limited in their application either for semantic or stylistic rea-
sons. Roughly unless means 'if...not'. However, there is a difference between
them: unless has the more exclusive meaning of 'only if... not' or 'except on con-
dition that'. The most adequate way of rendering this conjunction in Russian is
если только не.

e.g. We never part with things, you know, unless we want something in their place.
"Does the professor know?" "No. And he won't unless it is absolutely neces-
sary."

While if... not can be used instead of unless, though the clause will be de-
prived of the above mentioned specific shade of meaning, unless cannot always
serve as a substitute for if... not. For example, unless cannot be used in the follow-
ing sentence:
e.g. If your wife doesn't like the ring, I'll be happy to exchange it any time.

In case also has a specific shade of meaning implying purpose as well as condi-
tion. It should be rendered in Russian as на mоm случай, если.

e.g. I'd like the doctor handy in case she feels worse.

I've made provision in case anything happens to me.

Supposing (that) and suppose (that) preserve the meaning of supposition as
their origin from the verb to suppose is still strongly felt. They are best of all ren-
dered in Russian by means of предположим and are found in the following kinds
of sentences:

e.g. Suppose he doesn't turn up, what shall we do?

What will his uncle think of him, supposing it's true?

Providing (that) and provided (that) are rather narrow in meaning indicating a
favourable and desirable condition, which is explained by their connection with the
verb to provide. Besides, they are rather formal stylistically, being more typical of
official documents. The closest Russian equivalents are если, при наличии, при
условии.

e.g. But so long as a Forsyte got what he was after, he was not too particular about

the means, provided appearances were saved.

We are prepared to sign the agreement providing that you guarantee the high
quality of the goods.

On condition (that) is also connected with its original meaning (при условии)
and at the same time it is restricted stylistically, being more formal than if.

e.g. I will agree to this year's budget on condition that we drop this foreign busi-
ness in future.

All these conjunctions may be used in sentences of both real and unreal condition.

§ 146. In sentences of unreal condition we find forms express-
ing unreality: the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect
is used in the if-clause, and the Conditional Mood (Present and
Past) is used in the principal clause.

The action of the if-clause is represented by the speaker as con-
tradicting reality; consequently the action of the principal clause,
which depends on this unreal condition, cannot be realized either.

When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the present or
future, the form of the Past Indefinite is used in the if-clause and
the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause.

e.g. How nice it would be for Mother if we had a car.

You ought to know your uncle by this time. He's just like a

child. He'd be a pauper tomorrow if I didn't see to things.
If the hospital were not so overcrowded, he said, he would

recommend that she should be taken there.

When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the past, we
find the form of the Past Perfect in the if-clause and the Past
Conditional Mood in the principal clause.

e.g. It would have been too wonderful if he had said that. But he

didn't.
Of course, all this wouldn't have happened if the girl hadn't

been so excited.
I should have been sorry if I hadn't spoken.

§ 147. Note the following construction which may be used with
reference either to the present or to the past.

e.g, "Oh," Maurice went on, "if it weren't for my mother I should

be unhappy at home."
"Mrs Davidson was saying she didn't know how they'd have

got through the journey if it hadn't been for us," she said.
If it were not for his friend Crowdy, he would be in financial

difficulties.

§ 148. The if-clause and the principal clause need not necessar-
ily refer to the same time: the if-clause may refer to the present
and future and the principal clause may refer to the past, and
vice versa. Sentences of this kind are called a split condition.

e.g. If you were not so indifferent to him you would have noticed

that there was something happening to him.
You must remember if Mr Reed hadn't taken me out of the
drawing office, I should be there now getting two pounds a
week.

§ 149. Sentences of unreal condition referring to the future
may be of four types: ^l

1) The first type has already been described: the Past Indefi-
nite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in
the principal clause.

e.g. Half of the people would distrust you if you went away at

such a moment.

If we allowed him to go on with his experiments we would
never have any peace.

¹ Conditional sentences referring to the future, no matter what forms of the verb
are used in them, are always hypothetical, because one can never be sure of the actual
course of events in the future. But these future actions may be represented differently
by the speaker: either as an actual fact (when the Indicative Mood is used) or as
actions contradicting reality or problematic actions (see § 149).

The action is represented in such sentences as contradicting
reality — the speaker does not believe that it can be realized in
the future.

2) As the above type of conditional sentences may refer to both
the present and the future, there is a strong tendency in English
to use another type which is unambiguous, in order to show that
the action refers only to the future and not to the present.

In this type of conditional sentences we find the form were of
the modal verb to be to followed by an infinitive in the if-clause.
In the principal clause the Conditional Mood is used.

e.g. Mother would resist it bitterly if I were to ask for breakfast

at this hour.
If we were to take this man in hand for three months he

would become as soft as wax.
If young Adeline were to occupy the room it would look so

different.
If Meg were to repay you the fifteen dollars you lent her,

what would you do with the money?
He had lately thought much about what he would do if he

were to meet them.

This second type differs from the first type in that it em-
phasizes the tentative character of the condition.

3) Should + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the Future
Indefinite of the Indicative Mood in the principal clause.

e.g. I don't expect any telephone calls tonight. But if anyone
should call, the butler will say I've gone on a visit to some
of my relatives.

If the other conclusion should be correct the slight loss of
time will make no difference.

The Imperative Mood may also be used in the principal clause.

e.g. Better employ a solicitor. Sir, in case anything should arise.
If she should leave, keep an eye on her.

This third type of conditional sentences referring to the fu-
ture differs from the first two types in that it shows that the re-
alization of the action is represented as possible though unlikely
(but not contradicting reality as in the first two types). The if-clause

of the third type may be rendered in Russian as Если кто-нибудь
случайно позвонит..., Если так случится, что кто-нибудь слу
чайно позвонит... Если вдруг кто-нибудь позвонит.... We may
say that the realization of the action depends on some contingency.
In this type of sentences the clause of condition is rather often
introduced by the conjunction in case.

e.g. I'll let you know in case there should be some unavoidable

delay.
I' ll be at the flat all evening in case you should change your

mind.

The clause of condition introduced by this conjunction ac-
quires the meaning of на тот случай, если; в случае если.

4) Sometimes would + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the
Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause.

e.g. If he would only trust me, we would get on much better.
I'd love it if you would call me Eliza.

Would + infinitive expresses consent or willingness (=Если бы
вы согласились... Если бы вы захотели...).

A sentence of this type is often a conditional sentence only in
form; it is actually a polite request (see the last example above).

§ 150. The modal verbs can and may can also be found in con-
ditional sentences. If they occur in if-clauses referring to the
present or future, they have the past form.

e.g. If I could be a writer I should write detective stories.

His bedroom is very cold. If I might move him into your
study he would feel more cheerful there.

In the principal clause we generally use the Conditional Mood.
But as can and may are defective verbs and cannot be used in the
Conditional Mood, the past tense of these verbs is used in combi-
nation with the simple infinitive to refer the action to the present
or future.

e.g. I could try to make the place comfortable with more heart if

the sun were shining.

If you had any office training it might be possible to use you
up here.

When reference is made to the past, could and might are com-
bined with the Perfect infinitive (both in the if-clause and in the
principal clause).

e.g. Yet if she could have seen me there, she would have been a

little puzzled.

If I hadn't been there something very unpleasant might have
happened to him.

§ 151. A clause of unreal condition may be joined to the prin-
cipal clause asyndetically. In that case it always precedes the
principal clause and we find inversion in the subordinate clause —
the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

e.g. Had Irene been present, the family circle would have been

complete.

Should you want to do so you can withdraw your money at
any time.

As is seen from the above examples, asyndetic connection is
possible only when the predicate of the subordinate clause is an
analytical form (or a modal phrase). This construction is emphatic
and characteristic only of literary style.

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession

§ 152. Complex sentences with a clause of concession intro-
duced by the conjunction even if or even though are built up on
the same pattern as sentences of unreal condition — the form of
the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate
clause and the Conditional Mood, Present or Past, in the principal
clause.

e.g. But even if you were right, I should be prepared for any con-
tingency.
Even if I had been a stranger he would have talked of his

misfortune.

Note. In complex sentences with a clause of concession introduced by though,
although, whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, however, wherever, no matter
how the Indicative Mood is used in both clauses.

e.g.. And when we settle down, wherever it is, you'll have a garden, Chris.

In literary style may {might) + infinitive is occasionally used in clauses of con-
cession to lay stress on the meaning of supposition.

e.g. Whatever his invitation may mean, I'm going to accept it.

He said he would be glad to fulfil the conditions whatever they might be.

The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality
in a Special Type of Exclamatory Sentences
§ 153. The form of the Past Indefinite including the form
were is used in the following type of exclamatory sentences to ex-
press a wish which cannot be fulfilled.

e.g. Oh, if only Daddy were home!
Oh, if only I knew what to do!

In the above examples reference is made to the present. With
reference to the past the form of the Past Perfect is used,
e.g. Oh, if only he had given me a chance!

When the sentence refers to the future we find would + infini-
tive or could + infinitive,

e.g. If it would only stop raining for a single day!
Oh, if only you would see a doctor!
If only their life together could always be like this!
Sentences of this kind are very emphatic and restricted to spo-
ken English.