Translate the sentences below paying attention to inversion.

Shown in Fie. 2 is ... - На рисунке 2 показан ...

 

Example: Also plotted on this diagram are three different sets of values.

На этой диаграмме также нанесены три ряда величин. (Три ряда величин также нанесены на...)

 

1. Included in these figures is the small amount of radiation reflected either back to space or down to Earth by the process known as scattering.

2. Among the disadvantages are the higher energy losses caused by absorption and reflection in the optical elements.

3. Surrounding this nucleus are electrons and their actual number depends upon the atom being considered.

4. Of considerable importance is the ambiguity of the terms noticed in the following examples.

5. Associated with these protons, however, is a variable number of neutrons, each having almost exactly the same mass as a proton but no electric charge.

6. Of particular concern (важность) is the substantial advance of science in ever developing area of magnetism.

7. Plotted in Fig. 2 are the results of a computational simulation with a sharp peak in the correlation function of ions in plasma.

TEXT 2

Nuclear Processes

Before reading the text below comment and discuss the following passage.

Radioactivity was discovered at the end of the nineteenth century. The next decades saw an increasing understanding of radioactivity as just one of several nuclear processes, along with nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. The second half of the twentieth century saw increasing applications of these processes, in nuclear power and nuclear weapons, so that people talked of “the nuclear age”.

These processes were predicted follow­ing Einstein's development of his theories of relativity, with his famous equation AE = Amc². Here we will look at fission and fusion processes as sources of energy and see how Einstein's equation can explain the release of energy that occurs during them.

Work in two groups.

Group I

1. You are going to read the text about Nuclear fission. Seven phrases have been removed from the text. Choose from the sentence a-h the one which fits each gap (1 – 7). There is one extra phrase which you don’t need to use.

 

a. and therefore are the most stable

b. because this allows one product to be closer to the energetic minimum near mass 60 u (only a quarter of the average fissionable mass)

c. once a fuel element has been used

-

 

2. Match the notions and their meanings:

1. chain reaction a) the compound D₂O composed of deuterium and oxygen —called also deuterium oxide

2. isotope b) something that is built, installed, or established to serve a particular purpose

3. gamma ray c) a source of danger

4. heavy water d) a series of events so related to each other that each one initiates the next

5. hazard e) a photon emitted spontaneously by a radioactive substance

6. half-life f) the time required for half of the atoms of a radioactive substance to become disintegrated

7. facilities g) any of two or more species of atoms of a chemical element with the same atomic number and nearly identical chemical behavior but with differing atomic mass or mass number and different physical properties

 

3. Find words in the text above which mean the following:

 

Verbs

 

1. to clash

2. to initiate

3. to generate/ cause/ prompt

4. to control/ command/ restrict

5. to change/ alter/ modify

6. to compose/ compile

7. to release/expel/ eject

8. to take in/ consume/ eat or drink

 

4. Make a list of collocations with the words below and use them in sentences of your own:

 

event fuel mass   nuclei nucleus storage   repulsion isotope   charge hazard

 

 

Match the verbs with prepositions, translate and make sentences of your own using these verbs.

to differ ______

to control ______

to be induced ______

to break apart ______

to be converted ______

to collide ______

to depend ______

to decay ______

 

Group II

1. You are going to read the text about nuclear fusion. Six phrases have been removed from the text. Choose from the sentence a-g the one which fits each gap (1 – 6). There is one extra phrase which you don’t need to use.

1. accelerated to high speeds (that is, heated to thermonuclear temperatures)

2. production of the heaviest elements absorbs energy

3. research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s

4. where the extreme power of a fission bomb is necessary to begin the process

5. therefore are the most stable

6. in which one daughter nucleus has a mass of about 90 to 100 u and the other the remaining 130 to 140 u

7. which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions

Nuclear Fusion

In physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple atomic particles join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy. Iron and nickel nuclei have the largest binding energies per nucleon of all nuclei and 1)________. The fusion of two nuclei lighter than iron or nickel generally releases energy while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron or nickel absorbs energy; vice-versa for the reverse process, nuclear fission.

Nuclear fusion occurs naturally in stars. Artificial fusion in human enterprises has also been achieved, although not yet completely controlled. Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments of Ernest Rutherford done a few years earlier, fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes) was first observed by Mark Oliphant in 1932, and the steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were subsequently worked out by Hans Bethe throughout the remainder of that decade. 2)__________, as part of the Manhattan Project, but was not successful until 1952. Research into controlled fusion for civilian purposes began in the 1950s, and continues to this day.

Fusion reactions power the stars and produce all but the lightest elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. Whereas the fusion of light elements in the stars releases energy, 3)_________.

When the fusion reaction is a sustained uncontrolled chain, it can result in a thermonuclear explosion, such as that generated by a hydrogen bomb. Reactions which are not self-sustaining can still release considerable energy, as well as large numbers of neutrons.

Research into controlled fusion, with the aim of producing fusion power for the production of electricity, has been conducted for over 50 years. It has been accompanied by extreme scientific and technological difficulties, and as of yet has not been successful in producing workable designs. As of the present, the only self-sustaining fusion reactions produced by humans have been produced in hydrogen bombs, 4)_________. While some plans have been put forth to attempt to use the explosions of hydrogen bombs to generate electricity (e.g. PACER - programmed analysis and calculation of equipment reliability), none of these have ever moved far past the design stage.

It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element, hydrogen. This is because all nuclei have a positive charge (due to their protons), and as like charges repel, nuclei strongly resist being put too close together. 5)___________, however, they can overcome this electromagnetic repulsion and get close enough for the strong nuclear force to be active, achieving fusion. The fusion of lighter nuclei, creating a heavier nucleus and a free neutron, will generally release more energy than it took to force them together-an exothermic process that can produce self-sustaining reactions.

The energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than that in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is far greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 electron volts - less than one-millionth of the 17 MeV released in the D-T (deuterium-tritium) reaction shown to the top right. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission-that is, per unit of mass the reactions produce far greater energies, even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion reactions – 6)________. Only the direct conversion of mass into energy, such as with collision of matter and antimatter, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion.

2. Match the notions and their meanings:

1. nucleona) a fundamental form of energy observable in positive and negative forms that occurs naturally (as in lightning) or is produced (as in a generator) and that is expressed in terms of the movement and interaction of electrons

2. nucleosynthesis b) a proton or neutron especially in the atomic nucleus

3. self-sustaining c) an uncharged elementary particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of the proton and is present in all known atomic nuclei except the hydrogen nucleus

4. electricity d) the production of a chemical element from simpler nuclei (as of hydrogen) especially in a star

5. neutron e) the distribution of a quantity (as mass, electricity, or energy) per unit usually of space (as length, area, or volume)

6. density f) matter composed of antiparticles

7. antimatter g) maintaining or able to maintain itself

 

3. Find words which mean the following in the text above:

Verbs

1. to happen/ take place

2. to free/ liberate

3. to take in/ concentrate inside

4. to operate/ check/ command

5. to accomplish/ get/ reach
to produce/ make

6. to compel/ to make sth/sb do smth.

7. to unite/ mix

 

4. Make a list of collocations with the words below and use them in sentences of your own:

 

		process nuclei   purposes bomb   design charge   repulsion neutron   density process