Методические указания по английскому языку

МОЯ АКАДЕМИЯ

Методические указания по английскому языку

 

 

 

 

Федеральное агентство по образованию

Сибирская государственная автомобильно-дорожная академия (СибАДИ)

 

МОЯ АКАДЕМИЯ

 

 

Методические указания по английскому языку

 

Составитель М. А. Сидорова

 

 

Омск

Издательство СибАДИ

УДК 811.111

ББК 81.432.1

М 54

 

 

Рецензент канд. филол. наук, проф. ОмГУ М.П.Одинцова

 

 

Работа одобрена редакционно-издательским советом академии в качестве методических указаний по английскому языку для студентов II курса всех специальностей.

 

Моя академия: Методические указания по английскому языку / Сост. М. А. Сидорова – Омск: Изд-во СибАДИ, 2006. – 81 с.

 

Методические указания содержат упражнения и тексты для студентов II курса всех специальностей. Тексты и упражнения способствуют знакомству с будущей специальностью студентов и направлены на развитие навыков профессионального говорения.

 

Библиогр.: 11 назв.

 

 

ã Составитель М. А. Сидорова, 2006

PART I

HIGHER EDUCATION

1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What does the term “Higher education” mean?

2. What education institutions are there in Russia?

3. What academy do you study at?

4. What other educational institutions are there in your region?

5. What faculty do you study at?

6. Why is higher education so important?

Прочитайте и выучите.

 

compulsory – обязательный

vocational school – профессиональное учебное заведение

high school – среднее учебное заведение

higher education institution – высшее учебное заведение (вуз)

range – ряд, набор

comrehensive curriculum – всесторонний учебный план

general-educational subjects – общеобразовательные предметы

specialized subjects – специальные предметы

academic year – учебный год

extra-mural department – заочное отделение

opportunity – возможность

free of charge – бесплатный

benefits – достоинство, выгода

to get scholarship – получать стипендию

graduate – выпускник вуза

post-graduate courses – аспирантура

Составьте 3 предложения с новыми словами.

Обратите внимание на произношение следующих букв и буквосочетаний.

tion [∫n] education, mention, vocational, attention, calculations,

specialization, organization;

ea [i:] means, each, leak, team, lean, cream, steal, dream, bleak,

peak, beam.

Прочитайте и переведите текст.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

Higher education in Russia is not compulsory. After leaving secondary school young people enter vocational schools, high schools or higher education institutions. The latter include institutes, academies and universities. As a rule, studying at the institute is connected with one sphere of education: technical, medical, humanitarian, military or service. Universities usually offer wider range of specialities. Recently, the following system has been developed: institute – academy – university. That means that each establishment of higher education can change its status which depends on the quality of teaching staff and educational process as well as on the number of faculties and specialities.

Usually the course of study lasts 5 or 6 academic years (and from 3.5 to 6 academic years at the extra-mural department). Each academic year is divided into 2 terms, at the end of each term students take exams. If you have passed your entrance exams well, you’ve got an opportunity to study free of charge. Otherwise, you’ll have to pay for education.

Russian higher schools have a comprehensive curriculum, which includes general-educational and specialized subjects. Students attend lectures and fulfil lab works. At the end of study they take final exams and defend graduation projects.

Higher education in Russia still has some benefits. If you study hard, you can get scholarship and an institute organizes free holidays for its students. There are a lot of student clubs, students have celebrations, visit theatres, cinemas, concerts and take part in scientific conferences. Everybody has the opportunity to get a second education or continue their first, through post-graduate courses that are offered at higher education institutes.

 

Соотнесите вводные слова и союзы из предложений с их переводом. Составьте 3 предложения с любыми из этих слов.

1. As a rule, studying at the institute is connected with one sphere of education.

2. Recently, the following system has been developed: institute – academy – university.

3. Each establishment of higher education can change its status which depends on the quality of teaching staff and educational process as well as on the number of faculties and specialities.

4. Usually the course of study lasts 5 or 6 academic years.

5. Higher education in Russia still has some benefits.

 

В последнее время; обычно; так же, как; все-таки; как правило.

C какими фактами из текста “Higher education in Russia” соотносятся следующие цифры? Прочитайте соответствующие отрывки из текста.

1) 3.5 – 6. 2) 2. 3) 5 or 6.

7. Прочитайте текст и заполните таблицу о системе образования в разных странах.

 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

As long as we live we continue to learn, and the education we receive when we are young helps us to continue learning. We are taught to read and write, and are taught many of the essential facts about, the world and shown how to sort them out so that later in life, we shall be able to find out things ourselves and not to ask other people.

The first teachers were fathers and mothers, but very early in the history of man children began to be taught by people other than their fathers and
mothers. It is thought that schools first started in Egypt 5,000 to 6,000
years ago, and that it was the invention of writing which made them
necessary. Reading and writing were quite different from the skills used in
everyday life, and writing made it possible to store up knowledge which
grew with each generation. Specially trained people were therefore needed
to teach it.

Only the sons of nobles attended the first Egyptian schools, which
taught reading, physical education and good behaviour. In ancient India the
priestly caste decided what should be taught to each of the four castes, or
groups, into which people were divided. Only the priestly caste was allowed to learn the Hindu, scriptures. In China, until the 19th century, education was organized according to social classes, and consisted largely of learning the scriptures by heart.

A clear example of the way in which even neighboring peoples
produce different types of education comes from ancient Greece. Sparta and
Athens weretwo Greek states. The Spartans, hard and warlike people, gave
a purely military education to their children. At the age of seven all boys of noble families were taken from their homes arid sent to live in schools. They were kept under a very strict discipline and were taught hunting, military scouting, swimming and the use of weapons. The Spartans despised literature, and some people think they could not even read. At the very.game time, also for the nobles only, the building what we call a liberal education⁴- one that helps a man to all sides of his nature, helps him to make and appreciate beautiful things and helps him to, find the best way of life. They thought it important to educate the body as well as the mind, and had a programme of physical, training which consisted of running, jumping, wrestling and throwing the discus. As time went on Athenian education paid special attention to reading, writing and literature and these were taught by a special teacher, known as the "grammatist". Common people were not educated; they were trained in craftsmanship, workmanship, trades.

Greek philosophers, or thinkers, always discussed what education
should try to do and what it should include. Plato wrote a book called The
Republic, which is one of the best books ever written on education, and
since those days Greek ideas have influenced European education,
especially secondary and university education.

The Romans were very good at organizing, and they were the first
people to have schools run by the government free of charge. Throughout
their great empire there was a network of these schools which provided for
three stages of education.

At six or seven all boys (and some girls) went to the primary school, where they learned "three R's": reading, writing, and arithmetic. Most children were not taught more than this, but at 12 or 1-3, boys of the rich families went on to the "grammar" school to study the Greek and Latin languages and literatures, that is, what had been written in those languages. At 16, young nobles who wanted to enter politics or the service of their country went to the schools of rhetoric to be trained in rhetoric, or public.

In Great Britain the first teachers we read about were craftsmen. They taught children to read, write and count, to cook and mend their own shoes. In the early 19th- century the main system of teaching was the "Monitor" system. The teacher could manage a class of 100 or more by using older pupils or "monitors" to help him. The schools had long desks which were sometimes arranged in tiers so that the teacher could see every child in a large class.

 

The name of the country	Who was taught	What was taught
Egypt	The sons of nobles	Reading, physical education, good behaviour
Ancient India
China
Sparta
Athens
Roman State
Great Britain

8. Расскажите о высшем образовании в России.

9. Перескажите текст, пользуясь планом реферирования (см. приложение). Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов.

a definition – определение

to list – перечислять

according to – согласно

to grant – присуждать

a division – отделение

recreational – предназначенный для отдыха и развлечения

facilities – условия, возможности

a teaching assistant – доцент

competitive – конкурсный

to accept – принимать

to apply – подавать заявление о приеме

an applicant – абитуриент

 

Colleges

 

College	Age	Degree	Length of Time
Junior college	From 18		2-year degree
College	From 18	BA, BS	4-5 years
Graduate school	From 22	MA, MS	2-3 years plus thesis
PhD	3 years plus dissertation
Medical school	From 22	MD, DDS	4 years plus residency
Law school	From 22	JD	3 years

 

BA = Bachelor of Arts, BS = Bachelor of Science, MA = Master of Arts, MS = Master of Science, PhD = Doctorate (Professor), MD = Doctor, DDS = Dentist, JD = Lawyer.

 

MAY WEEK AT CAMBRIDGE

The most interesting time of year in which to visit Cambridge is during May Week. This is neither in May nor a week. For some reasons which nobody remembers, May Week is the name given to the first two weeks in June, the very end of the University year.

May Week denotes not so much a particular period of time as the general atmosphere of relaxation at the end of the year's work. It starts for each undergraduate when he finishes his examinations.

Everything as far as possible has to happen in the open air-parties, picnics, concerts and plays. May Week seems like a celebration of the coming of spring, till then ignored in favour of examinations, and this spirit of release seems to take over the entire (the whole) town. People go to the river behind the colleges which stand next to the river to watch May boat races, in which young energetic men are ready to show off their skill.

Music and drama also have a part to play in the festivities. Nearly every college of the University (and there are over 20 of them) holds a May Week concert or presents a play in the open air.

But the most important events are the May Balls for which some girls do their best for month in advance to get invitations. College May Balls are the climax of May Week and for many undergraduates are the final event of their university life, when the river is lit with coloured lights, ballroom orchestra plays for dancers and punts glide romantically down the river.

 

14. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1. What is May Week?

2. When does it take place?

3. How long does it last?

4. What are the most important events during May week?

Polytechnics

During the 1960-s the best of many technical collages (supported by the local authorities) were given the status of University. Although their main studies are still in technological subjects, they have introduced other subjects such as languages and social sciences. Many of these former polytechnics were in large cities where there was already a University, so there're now some towns and cities in Britain which have two Universities.

2. What kind of people have the opportunity organized by The Open University?

The Open University

This is an educational system which makes use of television, radio and correspondence courses. It was organized to give educational opportunity to those people who for one reason or another have not had a chance to receive further education. Study centers have set up all over the country so that students can attend once a week, and once a year they spend a week at one of the University summer schools.

3. What was the reason for building so-called “Red Brick Universities”?

The Red Brick Universities

With the development of industry in the 19th century technicians and engineers were needed. The older Universities didn't produce them. Therefore science classes were set up in industrial centers and later they developed into either technical colleges or the modern Universities, such as London, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham Universities and others. The term "Red Brick" is not used much today but it's a useful way of describing this group of Universities many of which are build in the favorite building material of the time - red brick.

4. How long does each term in Britain last?

Academic year

Academic year in British Universities is divided into three terms which usually run from the beginning of October to the middle of December, from the middle of January to the end of March, from the middle of April to the end of June. Admission to the Universities is by exams and selection.

5. How do the forms of teaching differ?

Forms of Teaching

At universities and colleges teaching takes the form of lectures classes, seminars and tutorials. A lecture is a formal method of teaching, and, although there may be questions, usually at the end, there is rarely any discussion. The number of students attending is limited only by the size of the room. A class is less formal than a lecture. There are not usually more than 50 students, sometimes considerably less and there is generally some discussion between the teacher and students. A seminar is a still smaller and more informal group. The number of students usually ranges from 5 to 10. Seminars are often held weekly, and as a rule one of the groups reads paper, which is then discussed by the others. A tutorial in its original form is an informal weekly meeting of an individual student with his tutor to discuss an essay which the student has written.

PART II

MY ACADEMY

1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What can you tell about your academy?

2. What is interesting in it?

3. What faculty do you study at?

4. What subjects do you study?

5. What are general-educational and what are specialised ones?

 

Прочитайте и выучите.

Chemistry – химия

Drawing – черчение

Geometry – геометрия

A Foreign Language – иностранный язык

Science – наука

Strength of materials – сопротивление материалов

Electrical engineering – электротехника

to combine – сочетать, совмещать

attention – внимание

almost – почти

significant – значительный

to depend – зависеть

hoist – подъемные

to belong – принадлежать

Book-keeping – бухучет

acquaint – знакомить

descriptive geometry – начертательная геометрия

PART III

Прочитайте и выучите.

 

vehicle – транспортное средство

steering – управление

gear box – коробка передач

steering gear – рулевой механизм

brakes – тормоза

bearings – подшипники

tire – шина

axle – ось

spring – рессора

valve – клапан

maintenance – эксплуатация, обслуживание

lubrication – смазка (процесс)

intersection – пересечение (дорог)

junction – перекресток

sign – знак

device – устройство, прибор

prohibit – запрещать

layout – развязка (дорог)

 

Two drivers

Two motorcars met in a very narrow lane in London. Neither of the drivers wanted to reverse and clear the road. The driver of the first car took out the newspaper “Times” and began reading. In an hour the second driver asked politely: “When you finish reading, won’t you give the newspaper to me? “

 

Much more difficult

A famous doctor was protesting to the owner of a garage about the large sum of money he had to pay for repairs to his car. “All this for a couple of hours’ work”, he exclaimed. “Why your people are paid at a higher rate then we are”. “Well, you see; replied the garage man; “you’ve been working on the same model since the beginning of time; but we have to learn all about a new model every year.”

 

She has no licence

“Have you got the licence?” asked the police patrol driver.

“Don’t be funny, officer.” Said the woman-motorist who had just hit a lamp-post. “Who would give me a licence for the way I drive? “

 

Wasn’t she afraid?

The old lady was going to take a taxi. “Driver,” she said, “I want you to take me to the station.” “Yes, madam”, said the driver. “And you must drive slowly and carefully. Don't go until the policeman lowers his arm, and, please, don't rush round the corners as the road is very wet.” The driver was getting angry. “All right, madam,” he said. “But if we do have an accident, what hospital would you like to be taken to?”

10. Найдите в текстах автомобильные термины и приведите их русские эквиваленты. Переведите тексты. Обратите внимание на незнакомые слова.

to pound – бить, колотить

club – полицейская дубинка

to cause – вызывать, приучать

to obey – повиноваться, подчиняться

intensifier – усилитель

 

A nation of auto lovers

 

We are a nation of auto lovers. We know all about cars. If you don't believe it stop your car in a city street. Two fellows will get out of a truck and lift your hood. The first will say: “What do you think, Bill?” “I don't know,” the other will answer, “what do you think?”

Another fellow will advise you to try stopping on the starter. The next fellow will carefully examine the fenders and want to know if you have gas.

Another truck will stop. The driver will step down, wipe your windshield and lights and ask if you’d like a push.

Then a policeman will appear and advise you to “get your car out of there.” Then he will pound all the tires with his club. The engine; which was flooded, will immediately start, and you will say a grateful goodbye to all the happy mechanics.

 

Road safety

Every year several thousand people are killed on the roads in Great Britain. These people are injured in road accidents; mainly they are knocker down at the junctions. Accidents are often caused by carelessness in respect to the road signs. Mind, that the road safety mainly depends on obeying the traffic rules.

 

If the driver is tired

The French engineer Jan Guebelen has invented a new device for drivers. The “signalizer” registers the physical state of the driver tiredness, nervousness and use of strong drinks. The device in the form of a bracelet worn on the hand is connected to the intensifier mounted on the control board of the cars; its signals put in action the servoengine which controls feeding of fuel to the carburetor, thus reducing the speed or bringing the car to a full stop.

If the driver is tired a bell is sounded to make him stop the car. In case he does not do it the car will stop by itself. It will not start until the driver has rested. If the driver is drunk, the bracelet will not “allow” him to start the car. A very useful device, especially, if we take into consideration the number of accidents on the roads caused by drivers being tired or drunk.

 

III. 2. TRAFFIC REGULATION

Прочитайте и выучите.

 

vehicular traffic – движение транспорта

pedestrian traffic – пешеходное движение

pavement markings – разметка на покрытии (дорог)

traffic markers – дорожные указатели

sign – знак

arterial route – магистральная дорога

one-way street – улица с односторонним движением

assign – назначать, поручать

traffic volume – интенсивность движения

hourly pattern – часовой расчет интенсивности движения

ordinance – постановление

right-of-way – полоса отвода дороги

off-centre lane – центральная разделительная полоса

 

TRAFFIC REGULATION

Traffic engineering deals with the direction and control of vehicular and pedestrian traffic on existing highways and streets. Thus it is concerned with the planning, design, and operation of all devices that aid the flow of traffic. Among these are pavement markings, traffic markers, signs, and traffic signals. Traffic engineering also deals with means for improving the efficiency of the existing system by the designation of arterial routes and one-way streets, and by controlling the use of these and other facilities. The integration of street and highway lighting into the over-all highway plan generally is considered a traffic engineering responsibility too. Interwoven into all the functions is accident reduction; and traffic engineers usually are assigned the responsibility for accident records and statistics. Parking likewise falls within the province of the traffic engineer because of the impact that parking problems have on street and highway operation.

The scope of aspects the traffic engineer deals with: traffic characteristics, traffic regulations, traffic-control devices, and environmental improvements. Traffic characteristics include such aspects as: physical factors, traffic volume, volume counting, speed characteristics, traffic stream flows, accidents, vehicular limitations and human characteristics.

As for traffic volume, the traffic engineer must be acquainted with some volume characteristics: hourly pattern, day-of-week variation, classification of vehicles, trends in volumes and the methods of volume counting. Traffic regulations cover traffic laws and ordinances, various types of traffic controls: speed control and curb-parking control. Traffic-control devices consist of traffic signs, markings, signals, islands and street and highway lighting.

Traffic regulations contribute to safety and decrease accidents. A most favourable effect on efficiency and the incidence of traffic accidents is dual highway. A dual highway separates opposite-direction traffic by a median divider. The separation of opposite-direction traffic by a median reduces the possibility of head-on collisions and sideswipe accidents. The width of the dual highway is varied for reasons of topography. Of necessity, the dual highway has not less than four traffic lanes. This number is efficient for traffic safety, because the driver has only one car alongside to watch.

Although the traffic engineer is concerned primarily with the traffic regulation and control, he must take into account the roadway elements, because sometimes, traffic-engineering functions are expanded to deal with problems in geometric design and highway planning.

Закончите предложения.

1. Traffic engineering deals with …

2. It is concerned with …

3. Interwoven into all the functions is …

4. Traffic engineering usually are assigned …

5. Traffic characteristics include …

6. Traffic engineer must be acquainted with some volume characteristics …

7. Traffic regulations cover various types of traffic controls …

8. Traffic-control devices consist of …

9. Traffic regulations contribute to …

10. Traffic engineer must take into account …

 

SAFETY POLICY

The continuing acquisition and analysis of accident statistics confirm great need to reduce accidents. A potential overall reduction is possible with road environment features: improvements at road junctions and intersections provide major opportunities for accident savings. On current sections the use of rumble strips and edgelining seems to improve driver’s behaviour. A check on driving in foggy conditions shows that drivers reduce speed but not down to that indicated to them on signs.

To study drivers’ behaviour in fog in relation to vehicle speed and visibility, equipment was installed on a duel 3-lane motorway during the winter which photographed vehicles from the rear and recorded their speed. A fog detector was used to switch on the equipment when the visibility dropped below 200 m and all vehicles in a selected lane passing the equipment at more than 8km/h were then photographed.

The results show that drivers did not reduce speed a great deal until visibility dropped to 100-150 m. At 50 m visibility, although speeds were substantially lower, more than half the drivers were exceeding the speed at which they could stop within this visibility distance.

10. Прочитайте тексты и найдите автомобильные термины и фразы, связанные с организацией дорожного движения. Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов.

 

phosphorescent – фосфоресцирующий, светящийся

tape – лента, полоса, полоска

fair – ярмарка

buckle – пряжка

tag – ярлык

lens – линза

dipped headlamp – фара ближнего света

 

Stepping to safety

Italian shoe manufactures have come up with new idea to give pedestrians more safety at night. Strips of phosphorescent tape are placed on the shoe bottoms to serve as safety reflectors. Every time a walker picks up a foot to step forward, his sole will grow in the dark, giving drivers warning. The device will be introduced at the Shoe Fair at Vigevano, Italy, center of the Italian Shoemaking industry.

Safe bags

Life-saving bags for children are orange and have fluorescent buckles. Children also carry reflective tag to keep them safe on the roads in the dark. Little “lenses” on the surface of the tag reflect light from a vehicle’s headlamps back to the driver. With dipped headlamps a pedestrian with a tag is visible to a driver at 148 yards. Without a tag he is only visible at 29 yards, especially if he wears dark clothing.

 

HISTORY OF ROAD MARKING

longitudinal – продольный

reputedly – как известно, как предполагается

substantial – существенный, важный

delineate – очерчивать

roadway transitions – переходы

obstructions – затруднения, препятствия

pertinent – уместный

inclusion – включение

bead – капля, шарик, бусина

 

Among the earliest pavement markings was the longitudinal center stripe which reputedly appeared first in Wayne County, Michigan, in 1911. The most common design of the stripe has 15-ft dashes separated by 25-ft spaces. Other dash-space combinations range from 9-15 to 70-70. A few agencies employ continuous lines. Width of line usually is 4in., although 3-6-in. stripes appear. Colour generally is recommended white, but some agencies use yellow. Patterns and colour for pavement markings differ among highway agencies, but there is substantial progress toward uniformity.

Today painted or built-in pavement markings are one of the most helpful instruments for traffic direction and control. Stripes are employed to delineate roadway center lines, lane boundaries, no-passing zones, pavement edges, roadway transitions, and the approach of obstructions, streetcar clearances, turns, stop lines, crosswalks, railroad crossings, and parking-space limits. Symbols, words, or numbers convey pertinent information such as that about speed limits and the nearness of schools.

Most agencies employ specialized mechanical equipment and trained crews for pavement striping. Some units are capable of covering 60 to 70 miles per day. Hand painting by spray or brush is necessary in tight quarters. Paints are fast drying, but almost all states use signs or protective devices to prevent vehicles from tracking them. In 15 states, motorists crossing newly painted lines are subject to arrest. Normal service life of stripes is 6 to 9 months.

A variety of paint mixtures are employed for striping. Worthy of particular notice is the strong trend toward the inclusion of glass beads to increase night visibility. In 1950 more than half of paint applied was beaded.

 

12. а) Найдите в тексте 4 предложения, содержащие глаголы в форме страдательного залога. Переведите их, определите время, число, лицо глагола;

б) Перестройте данные предложения в Passive Voice, сохраняя время глагола.

1. A few agencies employ continuous lines. 2. Most agencies employ specialized mechanical equipment and trained crews for pavement striping. 3. Almost all states use signs or protective devices to prevent vehicles from tracking them. 4. In 15 states, motorists crossing newly painted lines are subject to arrest.

PART IV

Прочитайте и выучите.

winch – лебедка

ripper – рыхлитель

digger – экскаватор

revolving shovel – вращающийся экскаватор

ditcher – экскаватор с обратной лопатой

batcher – дозатор

spreader – разбрасыватель сыпучих материалов

planner – ровнитель, планировщик

roller – каток

lock washer – замковая шайба

lock wire – замковая проволока

transmission case – коробка передач

drive gear case – ведущая шестерня коробки передач

crank case – картер (коленчатого вала)

cotter pin – шплинт, разводная чека

gasket – прокладка сальника

impurity – грязь, примесь

utility – коммунальный

linkage – сцепление

prevention – предупреждение, предотвращение

resource inputs – сырьевые ресурсы

LITTLE SQUIRT

Delphi has unveiled the next-generation of its Multec common rail technology, which now uses a unique solenoid injector design to optimize fuel rate, spray shape and accuracy. The new system provides the smallest injection quantities, highest precision fuel delivery and, along with closed loop strategies, results best-in class emission and acoustics performance, claims Delphi.

It can deliver up to 5 injections per cycle, allowing high flexibility for combustion optimization. In addition, it is capable of 1,800 bar system pressure, although initial Euro 5 applications are at 1,600 bars.

Delphi has also introduced a unique, piezo-based injector that compared to current piezo common rail technologies is expected to generate a 25 – 30 per cent reduction in emission in its first implementation and possibly leading to better results with further combustion optimization.

This Piezotec injection system will help OEMs meet Euro 5 emissions regulations on heavier vehicles and stringent new US emissions regulations, claims Delphi. It can deliver up to 7 or more injection events per cycle with extremely high fuel quantity accuracy for pilot, main and post events. The design breakthrough allows dramatically reduced spacing between events, giving engine designers full freedom to shape the flow of fuel throughout the combustion stroke.

Delphi has several diesel technologies including catalysed particulate traps, oxidation catalysed and NOx traps. It is currently developing a combined diesel NOx and particulate trap.

 

PART V

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subgrade – земляное полотно, основание дорог

subbase – нижний слой покрытия

pavement – покрытие

crushed stone – щебень

artificial – искусственный, готовый

overpass – переход, путепровод

retaining wall – подпорная стена

portland cement – портландцемент

cement concrete – цементобетон

limestone – известняк

cinder – зола

patching –ямочный ремонт

rut – борозда

corrugation – рифление, волнообразование

blading – обработка (выглаживание) дороги грейдером

mowing – скашивание (травы)

right-of-way – полоса отвода дороги, полоса отчуждения

deflection – прогиб

culvert – водопропускная труба

 

Найдите синонимы.

 

Building, maintenance, operation, highway, qualification, design, transportation.

 

Planning, carrying passengers or goods, speciality, road, construction, keeping in good condition, working.

 

 

EARLY ROADS

Traces of early roads have been found which antedate recorded history. The first hard surfaces appeared in Mesopotamia soon after discovery of the wheel about 3500 B.C. On the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea a stone-surfaced road constructed before 1500 B.C. was found. The direction in the Bible “make straight in the desert a high road“ refers to a road constructed soon after 539 B.C. between Babylon and Egypt. In the western Hemisphere evidence exists of extensive road systems constructed by the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan people of Central and South America. The Romans bound their empire together with an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. The Appian Way, constructed southward about 312 B.C. illustrates the elaborate procedures that the Romans employed. First a trench was excavated to such a depth that the finished surface would be at ground level. The pavement was placed in three courses: a layer of small broken stones; a layer of small stones mixed with mortar and firmly tamped into place, and a wearing course of massive stone blocks, set and bedded in mortar. Many such roads are still in existence after almost 2000 years.

With the fall of the Roman Empire, road building became a lost art. It was not until the 18^th century that Tresaguet (1716-1796) in France developed improved construction methods that at a later time, under Napoleon, made possible a great system of French roads. Highway development in England followed soon after that in France. Mac. Adam (1756 - 1836) in particular made use of crushed stone as a road-surfacing material in a manner that is still widely used with some modifications. Both in France and in England the problem was chiefly to produce a road surface usable under all conditions of weather.

Few roads were constructed during the history of the United States. Most early settlements were located along bays or rivers, and transportation was largely by water, on foot or horseback. Roads development was extremely slow for a time after the Revolutionary War’s end in 1783. Poor roads were the real cause of the Whisky Rebellion in western Pennsylvania in 1794 (the farmers of this area objected to a tax on the whisky that they were making from grain). Construction of the Philadelphia-Candcaster Turnpike resulted from this incident. It was a toll road 62 miles long, surfaced to a width of 24ft with hand-broken stone and gravel.

Between 1795 and 1830 numerous other turnpikes, particularly in the northeastern states, were built. For example, the “Old National Pike” or “Cumberland road” from Cumberland to wheeling was financed by the Federal government and was originally toll-free. It was authorized by Congress in 1806, and was completed 10 years later. It was 20ft in width, and consisted of a 12-in. bottom and a 6-in. top course of hand-broken stone. Some 20 more years elapsed before the road was completed to St. Louis.

The extension of turnpikes in the United States was abruptly halted by the development of the railroads. At the end of the century, approximately 300 years after the first settlement, the United States could claim little distinction because of the character of its roads and turned to the countries of Europe for information of seeking knowledge on road-building methods. There were strong demands for rural road improvement although great improvements were made in city streets. After that the state highways continued to expand more than 2 decades.

Organization which coordinates the work concerning highways is called American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO). It was established in 1914. Among other duties it prepares specifications, manuals, standards and publishes a quarterly magazine “American Highways”, which reports on current highway subjects.

Найдите 16 слов из текста.

w	m	o	r	t	a	r	c	v
d	i	s	c	o	v	e	r	y
e	x	a	t	a	z	t	e	c
s	e	y	a	b	e	a	t	l
e	d	e	r	i	p	m	e	a
r	o	a	d	a	m	p	l	y
t	r	e	n	c	h	e	l	e
u	k	h	t	p	e	d	o	r
e	k	i	p	n	r	u	t	l

 

HIGHWAY ECONOMY

Highways are constructed because they provide benefits to society as a whole or as individuals. Good transportation facilities raise the level of the entire economy by providing for ready transportation of goods; they are of assistance in problems of national defense; they make easier the provision of community services like police and fire protection, medical care, schooling, and delivery of the mails; they open added opportunities for recreation and travel.

Highways benefit the landowner because ready access makes his property more valuable. They benefit the motor-vehicle user through reduced cost of vehicle operation, savings in time, reduction in accidents, and increased comfort and ease of driving. On the other hand, road improvements take money that might be used for other productive purposes by individuals or by government. They can be justified only if the benefits exceed the costs entailed in providing them, including some allowance for return on the money invested.

The total cost of motor transportation is the essential consideration in long-term planning for highways. For many years attention was focused largely on the relative economy of various types of road surfacing, and later on the costs of motor-vehicle operation. The direction in highway economics includes the following: cost of motor-vehicle operation; cost of motor-fuel consumed, oil consumption, tire costs, vehicle repair and maintenance, depreciation, stopping and starting an automobile costs, accidents costs.

V.2. BRIDGE ENGINEERING

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clearance – габарит

truss bridge – мост со сквозными фермами

reinforced concrete – железобетон

approach – подъезд к мосту

arch bridge – арочный мост

rigid–frame bridge – однопролетный мост с жестким каркасом

beam bridge – балочный мост

truss bridge – мост с фермами

arched cantilever bridge – арочный консольный мост

concrete slab bridge – бетонный мост

leaf bridge – разводной мост

lattice bridge – решетчатый мост

suspension bridge – висячий мост

right-angle bridge – прямоугольный мост

curvature – кривизна дороги

pier – бык (промежуточная опора моста)

abutment – опора, береговой устой моста

waterway – фарватер, водный путь

arched cantilever bridge – арочный консольный мост

floor beam – поперечная балка мостового настила

concrete slab bridge – мост с проезжей частью из железобетонных плит

double-deck bridge – двухъярусный мост

stone masonry bridge – каменный мост

parkway – парковая дорога

span – пролет моста

open-deck bridge – мост с ездой поверху и понизу

BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Bridge engineering is one of the oldest specialities of our academy. Highway bridge engineers use the same analytical tools as other structural engineers. Principal differences are in clearance and loading requirements.

Bridges consist of substructures of abutments and piers under superstructures carrying the roadway between these supports. Types of bridges include slab, truss, arch, and suspension bridges, each with a distinctive form of superstructure. Rigid frames are bridges in which the substructure and superstructure are rigidly joined. A further distinction is made in terms of materials, the most common of which are reinforced concrete, steel, and timber.

The important construction for the bridge structure is the approach alignment. Sometimes there may be sharp turns at the approaches because the most favourable bridge site was the sole criterion for the location. Today the general policy is to determine the proper highway location and require the bridge engineer to furnish structures for it. This of course results in more expensive crossings, for skew bridges cost more than rightangle ones, and the introduction of horizontal and vertical curvature into large bridges creates serious design and construction problems. However, the end result is a better roadway. When the approximate location is fixed, there must be a complete and extensive report and special survey for the site. It should include accurate data on the channel or waterway for all stages of water, the foundation conditions, and the stream character.

The form and proportion of the structures are varied considerably in different situations and are matters for cooperative determination. Arch and right-frame-type bridges with stone masonry walls have been commonly accepted on many parkways as appropriate for the short span over a highway and over small streams. The concrete iron bridge has also been popular along parkways, because of its lower costs. Today there is a tendency for highway bridgework to be a beam-type open-deck structure, supported by columns and with little emphasis on abutments.

 

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environment – окружающая среда

to seem – казаться

to design – проектировать, разрабатывать

commissioning – пуск, ввод в действие

maintenance – обслуживание, эксплуатация

stage – ступень, этап, шаг

disposal – размещение, расположение

endeavours – избавление, устранение

averting – предотвращение, предупреждение

contamination – загрязнение, порча

hazardous – опасный, рискованный

assessments – отчисления

to save – спасать, сохранять

to destroy – разрушать

to investigate – разрабатывать, исследовать

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

It seems that engineering and ecology have nothing in common; however, nowadays people understand that all modern technologies should be “ecologised”. That is, a future specialist (an engineer-ecologist) will take part in the building process on its every stage (pre-designing, designing, commissioning and maintenance of the constructed object).

Environmental Engineering is the development of processes and infrastruc­ture for the supply of water, the disposal of waste and the control of pollution of all kinds. These endeavours protect public health by preventing disease transmission, and they preserve the quality of the environment by averting the contamination and degradation of air, water, and land resources.

Environmental engineering is a field of broad scope that is connected with such dis­ciplines as chemistry, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, economics, and mathematics. It was traditionally a specialized field within civil engineering and was called sanitary engineering until the mid-1960s, when the more accurate name environmental engineering was adopted.

Projects in environmental engineering involve the treatment and distribu­tion of drinking water; the collection, treatment, and disposal of wastewater; the control of air and noise pollution; the management of municipal solid waste and of hazardous waste; the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites; and the preparation of environmental assessments, audits, and impact studies.

The main task of highway and bridge construction is to save but not to destroy clean lakes and rivers. The whole world and particularly our country need specialists in this sphere. That’s why the qualification “Environmental Engineering” was created at the Highway Engineering faculty in 2001. The students study such specialized subjects as ecological law, monitoring and expertise.

Northern areas of the Omsk region are being investigated now. It is necessary to build roads and bridges there paying attention to wildlife and using environmentally friendly technologies. So, the need in such specialists as engineer-ecologists is constantly growing.

 

ECOSYSTEMS: WHAT THEY ARE

1. There are two "sides" in every ecosystem, the organisms on one
hand and the environmental factors on the other. All the organisms – plants, animals, and microbes – in the ecosystem are referred to as the
biota (bio, "life"). The way the categories of organisms fit together is
referred to as the biotic structure. The nonliving chemical and physi­cal factors of the environment (climate, soil quality and so forth) are
referred to as abiotic (a, "non") factors.

2. As it was noted before, the environment involves the interplay of many physical and chemical, or abiotic factors, the major ones being
rainfall (amount and distribution over the year), temperature (extremes
of heat and cold as well as average), light, water, wind, chemical nutrients, pH (acidity), salinity (saltiness) and fire. The degree to which each
is present or absent, high or low, profoundly affects the ability of organisms to survive. However, different species may be affected differently by each factor. This difference in response to environmental factors determines which species may or may not occupy a given region.

3. In any study of the abiotic side of ecology, the key observation is that different species thrive under different conditions. This principle applies to all living things, both plants and animals. Some like it very wet; others like it relatively dry. Some like it very warm; others do best in cooler situations. Some tolerate freezing, others don't. Some require bright sun; others do best in shade. Thus, a single factor – temperature, say – can be varied in a systematic way, while all other factors are kept constant. Experiments show that, as temperature is raised from a low point that fails to support growth, plants grow increasingly well until they reach some maximum. Then, as temperature is raised still fur­ther, the plants become increasingly stressed; they do less well, suffer injury and die.

4. Since the results just described apply to any and all abiotic factors, we observe what is known as the Law of Limiting Factors: Any
one factor being outside its optimal range at any given time will cause
stress and limit the growth of an organism. The factor that is limiting
the growth is called the limiting factor. It may be any factor that affects
the organism. The Law of Limiting Factors includes the problem of
"too much" as well as the problem of "too little". For example, plants
may be stressed or killed by overwatering or overfertilizing as well as by underwatering or underfertilizing, a common pitfall for amateur gar­deners. The factor that is limiting may change from one time to anoth­er.

5. The Law of Limiting Factors was first presented by Justus von Liebig in 1840 in connection with his observations regarding the ef­fects of chemical nutrients on plant growth. He observed that restrict­ing any one of the many different nutrients at any given time had the same effect: it limited growth. Thus, this law is also called Liebig's Law of Minimums. Observations since Liebig's time, however, show that his law has much broader application. Beyond its application to all abiotic factors, it may be applied to biotic factors as well.

6. In summary, the biosphere consists of a great variety of environ­ments, both aquatic and terrestrial. In each environment we find plants, animal, and microbial species that are adapted to all the abiotic factors and also to each other in various feeding and nonfeeding relationships. Such environment supports a more or less unique grouping of organ­isms interacting with each other and with the environment in a way that perpetuates or sustains the entire group. That is, each environment with the species it supports is an ecosystem. Every ecosystem is interconnected with others through ecotones and through some species that cross from one system to another. At the same time, each species and, as a result, each ecosystem, is kept within certain bounds by limiting factors. That is, the spread of each species is at some point limited by its not being able to tolerate particular conditions, compete with other species, or cross some physical barrier.

7. A major concern of many environmentalists is how altering any factor, abiotic or biotic, may upset these limits and have far-reaching consequences through a ripple effect. Recognizing that everything in the biosphere is interconnected leads to the conclusion that nothing can be changed without affecting everything else to a greater or lesser degree. Obviously, humans have changed and are continuing to change things on a very large scale. What will these changes bring? Many envi­ronmentalists, including a number of scientists, promote the idea that we may be on the verge of a sudden and catastrophic "collapse of the biosphere" in which most if not all life may perish. On the other hand, cornucopians, also including a number of scientists, point out that there is no solid evidence to support such a "doomsday scenario"; much less that it is imminent. Indeed, they argue that all our experience to date should lead to the quite opposite conclusion: Humans have already caused the extinction of thousands of species and made manifold changes over most of the earth, but we and the biosphere are still doing well. Therefore, they maintain that continuing development as we have been does not pose an environmental threat.

 

PART VI

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municipal – муниципальный, городской

utility – коммунальный

prefabricated – сборный, готовый

computed strength – расчетная прочность

limited strength – предельное сопротивление

bearing strength – прочность на смятие

bending strength, flexural strength – прочность на изгиб

rupture strength, Tensile strength – сопротивление разрыву

compressive strength – прочность на сжатие

frictional strength – сопротивление трению

shear strength – сопротивление сдвигу

shrinkage stress strength – усадочное напряжение

torsional strength – сопротивление кручению

wraping stress strength – напряжение от коробления

basement – основание

partition – перегородка

sewerage – канализация

insulation – изоляция

superintendent – управляющий

 

THE EMPIRE STATE BUILDING

Since 1931 the Empire State Building has been the tallest structure in the world, 1,250 feet. It is taller than the Eiffel Tower. The Empire State Building is a milestone in tall-building construction. Its height posed a number of problems concerning the stability of the structure itself. It was founded on bedrock at a depth of about 50 feet below the street level. The area of the base is about 2 acres. Its total weight of 302,500 tons; including 67,000 tons of steel, is divided among more than one hundred rolled fabricated steel columns, the largest of which carried 5,000 tons down to the base. These columns rest on broad and heavily reinforced bases of concrete supported in turn on bedrock. The steel columns are subjected to a constant compressive stress by the weight of the structure.

The water-distribution system in the building consists of a series of water tanks at different levels; if the water system were not thus divided, a faucet on a lower floor would be subjected to a pressure of about 600 pounds a per square inch. The building has 69 electric elevators; their maximum speed is 1,000 feet per minute. The building was ready for occupancy 14 months after the first steel element was placed on the footings. There 3,400 workmen of different trades employed on the 104 floors.

 

WHAT IS HOME?

A roof to keep out the rain? Four walls to keep out the wind? Floors to keep out the cold?

Yes, but home is more than that. It's the laugh of a baby, the song of a mother, the strength of a father. Warmth of living hearts, light from happy eyes, kindness, loyalty, comradeship. Home is first school and first church for young ones, where they learn what is right, what is good and what is kind. Where they go for comfort when they are hurt or sick.

Where joy is shared and sorrow eased. Where fathers and moth­ers are respected and loved. Where children are wanted. Where the simplest food is good enough for kings because it is earned. Where money is not as important as loving kindness. Where even the teaket­tle sings from happiness.

That is home. Sweet home.

God bless it.

 

PART VII

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