GRAMMAR: Modals with the Perfect Infinitive – Модальні дієслова з перфектним інфінітивом

 

Can, may, might, must, could, should, ought to are also used to talk about possibility, probability and certainty in the past.

 

 

Must + Perfect Infinitive expresses the speaker's certainty that something has happened.

If she is not here by now, something must have happened.

 

Could / may / might + Perfect Infinitive express the idea that there is a possibility that something has

happened: She looks miserable. She could / may / might have lost her job. (Perhaps she has lost her job)

 

Can't / couldn't + Perfect Infinitive express the speaker's certainty that something has not happened:

She can't / couldn't have gone; her coat is still here. (I’m sure she’s still here.)

 

May not / might not + Perfect Infinitive express the idea that it is possible that something didn't happen:

Nobody is in the office. They may not / might not have received our message.

 

Should / ought to + Perfect Infinitive indicate that an action considered desirable was not carried out:

You ought to / should have warned your employer. (I think it was a good idea to warn your employer.)

 

Shouldn't / oughtn't to + Perfect Infinitive indicate that an action considered undesirable was carried out:

You shouldn’t / oughtn't to have told her this news. (I think it was a bad idea to tell her the news.)

 

 

Ex.1. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate modal verb from the box below:

 

should, couldn't, ought to, must, can't, shouldn't, may

 

1 She ______ have lost her way; she must have missed the train. 2 Has she phoned yet? She ______ have phoned two hours ago. 3 I'm not waiting much longer. He ______ have been here hours ago. 4 The bus ______ have been at the airport. He promised to meet us. 5 He is back already. He ______ have started very early. 6 Do you remember reading about it in the newspapers? No, I ______ have been abroad at the time. 7 We had a very good dinner for $10 at a restaurant yesterday. You ______ have had a very good dinner if you only paid $10. 8 I saw your boss in the theatre yesterday. You _____ have seen him; he is still abroad. 9 The letter ______ have been posted long ago. 10 You _______ have greeted him first. 11 She _______ have made such a mistake. 12 You _______ have left your glasses in the car. 13 Give him a ring. He _______ have arrived by now. 14 They______have followed her advice. Now they regret not to have done so. 15 You _______ have spoken to your employee in such a tone. I am sure, you have hurt him. 16 He ______ have left without saying good-bye. 17 He ______ have concealed something from his employer. 18 They _______ have delayed the discussion of the problem.

 

Ex.2. Complete the sentences with should (shouldn’t), could, may (may not), needn't, can't + have:

 

1 You ………………. been here a week ago. 2 He ……………….. signed that contract. He was on business trip last week. 3 If he needed money, he ……………… asked me. 4 "Where’s the secretary?" "No idea. She ……………….. gone home." 5 He ………………… got a new job. I'll phone him tonight. 6 She hasn't come. But she ……………. got your message. 7 You ………… made that speech in front of an audience; nobody appreciated it. 8 You really ………………… informed your employer of those changes! 9 The de-legation ………………. arrived yet. 10 You ………………. warned him. Why didn't you? 11 He ………… spoken to the manager. I've already spoken to him. 12 You ………….. bought that house. 13 I …..………... borrowed him money. It was my mistake. 14 He …………….. invested all the money. I’m sure he hasn't.

 

Ex.3. Translate into English:

 

1 He може бути, щоб він дав згоду виконати таку кількість роботи за такий короткий строк. 2 Не може бути, щоб вони досі не вирішили цього питання. 3 Зараз вони, можливо, вже закінчили свій дослід. 4 Тобі потрібно було зателефонувати йому вчора; ти знав що він хворий. 5 Звичайно, ти повинна була попередити їх раніше. Чому ти цього не зробила? 6 Його здоров'я покращилося. Він, можливо, кинув палити. 7 Він, можливо, не усвідомив одразу всієї важливості повідомлення. 8 Щось, можливо, затримало його. Він повинен був вже повернутися. 9 Можливо ти не зрозумів її. Вона не хотіла образити тебе. 10 Вони, можливо, не скоротили свої витрати. Ось чому вони зараз є боржниками. 11 В неї, мабуть, не було жодного шансу попередити мене заздалегідь. 12 До цього часу він, можливо, сплатив вже всі борги.

 

Aggregate supply

supply – постачання aggregate supply – сукупна пропозиція capital goods – засоби виробництва to be productive – щоб бути продуктивною affect – впливати (на)

national income accounting – облік національного доходу keeps track of production – слідкує за economy’s performance – функціонування економіки

Just as economists study the amount of goods and services brought to market by a single producer, they also study the total amount of goods and services produced by the economy as a whole. Thus, they examine aggregate supply – the total amount of goods and services produced by the economy in a given period, usually one year.

A number of factors affect an economy’s aggregate supply. Two of these are the quantity of resources used in production and the quality of those resources. For example, an economy must have an adequate supply of natural resources and capital goods to be productive. It also needs a skilled and highly motivated labour force.

A third factor affecting aggregate supply is the efficiency with which the resources are combined. If they are combined in a productive way, aggregate supply will increase.

In order to measure aggregate supply, statistics must be kept. To keep with this task economists use national income accounting – a system of statistics that keeps track of production, consumption, saving and investment in the economy. National income accounting also makes it possible to trace long-run trends in the economy and to form new public policies to improve the economy.

The most important economic statistics kept in the national income accounts is Gross National Product (GNP). This is the dollar measure of the total amount of final goods and services produced in a year. It is one of the most important and comprehensive statistics kept on the economy’s performance.

 

1 What do economists study? 2 What is aggregate supply? 3 What factors affect an economy’s aggregate supply? 4 When will aggregate supply increase? 5 What must be kept in order to measure aggregate supply? 6 What is national income accounting? 7 What helps to trace long-run trends in the economy and form new public policies? What is it aimed at? 8 What is GNP?

I. Find equivalents:

adequate supply of natural resources keep with a task final goods trace long-run trends in the economy skilled labour force national income accounting capital goods improve the economy aggregate supply total amount of goods and services single producer Gross National Product the quantity and the quality

a b c d e f g h i j k l m

загальна кількість товарів та послуг кваліфікована робоча сила засоби виробництва відповідний (достатній) запас природних багатств сукупна пропозиція поліпшувати стан економіки валовий національний продукт виконувати завдання кількість і якість облік національного доходу окремий виробник готова продукція намічати перспективні напрямки в економіці

II. Match the synonyms:

Adequate, to grow, skilful, to affect, goods, merchandise, amount, trend, to ameliorate, consider, to improve, sufficient, to trace, to increase, to influence, examine, manufacturer, tendency, total, quantity, to track, producer, aggregate, skilled.

III. Fill in the blanks with prepositions or adverbs if necessary:

1 Economists examine aggregate supply – the total amount... goods and services produced... the economy... a given period. 2 A number... factors affect... an economy’s aggregate supply. 3 Two... these are the quantity... resources used... production and the quality... those resources. 4... order to measure aggregate supply, statistics must be kept. 5 One... the factors affecting... aggregate supply is the efficiency... which the resources are combined. 6 The most important economic statistics kept... the national income accounts is Gross National Product. 7 This is the dollar measure... the total amount... final goods and services produced... a year.

IV. Match the terms with their definitions:

1. efficiency	а. Goods ultimately bought and used by consumers.
2. capital goods	b. A measure of the nation’s total output of goods and services per year.
3. services	c. Something created to produce other goods and services.
4. final goods	d. Intangible item of value, such as the work of physicians, lawyers, teachers, actors.
5. labour force	e. A measure of how much we get what we use.
6. Gross National Product	f. All the goods and services provided by the economy.
7. Aggregate Supply	g. A system of statistics, that keeps track of production, consumption, saving and investment in the economy.
8. national income accounting	h. Individuals, 16 years of age or older, working or looking for work.

V. Define which of the following items best completes the statement:

1) The GNP can best be described as a measure of...

a. the nation’s economic welfare b. the value of all goods and services produced in the country

c. the retail value of all market production in the nation d. goods and services produced by the government

2) A nation’s standard of living will rise if...

a. GNP and population increase at the same rate b. GNP increases faster than population

c. population increases faster than GNP d. production and consumption decrease

3) Assume that prices are rising while production remains unchanged. In these circumstances, GNP measured in current dollars will...

a. increase b. remain the same

c. decrease d. cause prices to fall

VI. Complete the following sentences:

1 Economists examine aggregate supply... 2 The factors affecting aggregate supply are... 3 In order to measure aggregate supply... 4 National income accounting is... 5 National income accounting also makes it possible... 6 The most important economic statistics kept in the national income accounts are... 7 GNP is...

VIII. Translate into English:

1 Економісти розглядають сукупну пропозицію як загальну кількість товарів та послуг, вироблених, як правило, за один рік. 2 На сукупну пропозицію впливає кількість цих ресурсів. 3 Щоб бути продуктивною, економіка повинна мати відповідний (достатній) запас природних багатств та засобів виробництва. 4 Третій фактор, який впливає на сукупну пропозицію, – це ефективність, з якою комбінуються ресурси. 5 Розрахунок національного прибутку дає можливість накреслити перспективні напрямки в економіці і виробити нові напрямки державної політики, щоб поліпшити стан економіки. 6 Валовий національний продукт – це вартість у доларах усієї сукупності готової продукції та послуг, вироблених і наданих за рік.