Sensor systems physiology (analizators and their significance for organism interrelations with surrounding external and internal environment).

Human being constantly receives information about multiple changes taking place in external and internal environment. It is realized by means of analizators or sensor systems. Each analizator consists of 3 parts:

1) perypheral or receptor part – performes stimulus energy perception and its transformation in specific excitement process;

2) conductive part - is represented by afferent nerves, spinal and stem centers. It performs specific excitement primary processing and its transmission to brain cortex;

3) central, brain or cortical part – corresponding cortical zones, where ending excitement processing – the highest analysis and corresponding sensation forming – is performed.

Thus, analizators – integrity of structures providing:

· irritator energy perception;

· its transformation into specific excitement process;

· this excitement transmission through CNS structures;

· its analysis, assessment by specific cortex zones with subsequent forming of corresponding sensation.

 

Gustatory reception. Gustatory sensitivity is oral mucosa sensor function specific peculiarity. Gustatory analizator physiology knowledge is a very important because change of its function may testifies to serious disorders both in oral cavity and in other organism parts. One can differentiate such problems with taste:

· agevzya – gustatory sensitivity loss;

· hypogevzya – gustatory or taste sensitivity reducing;

· hypergevzya - gustatory or taste sensitivity increasing;

· paragevzya - gustatory or taste sensitivity distortion;

· dysgevzya – gustatory substances detailed analysis disorders;

· gustatory gallucinations.

But gustatory analizator role and its importance is difficult to determine separately because natural adequate stimulus - food, coming into oral cavity – excites simultaneously other analizators receptors. Thus, gustatory sensation is a complicated sum of excitements coming into cortex from gustatory, olfactory, tactile, temperature and nociceptive receptors. First of all, in oral mucosa tactile receptors are excited, later – temperature and than receptors answering to chemical food content. Impulses from them go into CNS through different fibres with different velocity. Result - dyspersion on excitement spreading through nervous centers. Different shades of gustatory sensations also depend on the complex of occuring excitations. Gustatory receptor cells are united in gustatory bulbs which are primarily located in tongue papillas: fingiformed, foliatae and vallate. Taste analizator sensitivity assessment is performed by method of gustatory sensation threshold determining as well as by functional mobility method. Gustatory thresholds are defined separately for every from 4 main gustatory stimuli according to taste fields topography because separate tongue locuses possess different sensitivity to substances of various gustatory quality in the majority of people: tongue end is the most sensitive to sweet, lateral surfaces – to salt and sour, root – to bitter. It was established by means of functional mobility method that active lingual papillas amount is constantly changed according to alimentary tract functional state. Receptor mobilization maximal level is observed on an empty stomach, it is reduced after its irritation with food. This phenomenon is known as gastro-lingual reflex. Gustatory receptors play the effector role in this reflex. Some dental diseases for example glossalgia (pain in tongue), glossitis (tongue inflammation) and others may appear at alimentary tract disorders. There can be taste loss and gastro-lingual reflex disorder that can be used as diagnostic criterium. Gastro-lingual reflex study in these cases help diseases aethiology assessment.

 

Somato-sensor analizator - system providing organism connection with environment through skin and visible mucosae.

It contains 3 types of receptors:

· tactile (mechanoreceptors);

· thermal (of warmth and coldness);

· noceoceptive (of pain).

 

Tactile reception. Tactile reception is an important part of somato-sensor analizator. It is represented by touching and pressure receptors. These receptors are in strong functional interconnection with mechanoreceptors and proprioreceptors. They are located in skin different regions (maximal sensitivity is on fingers endings, foot). Touching sensation or pressure can be caused indefinite points (tactile points). They are free nervous endings (Ruffini bodies, Pachini bodies et al.). Free nervous endings afferent fibres carry the information according to sensitivity type through spinal nerves, then through posterior columns fibres (Goll’s and Burdach’s fasciculi) to brain stem, thalamus and cortex (postcentral sulcus).

Tactile sensitivity gives the imagination about subjects shape and their surface. Multiple, freaquent irritation of them causes vibration sensation. Simultaneous several Pachini bodies involvement into reaction is the essential condition of vibration occurence in skin. Skin superficial layers local anaesthesia doesn’t liquidate vibrational sensitivity and high-freaquened receptors answer reactions.

 

Temperature reception. Temperature analizator belongs to somato-sensor analizator too. Some sensor regions possess high sensitivity to temperature fluctuations. Temperature receptors are divided into receptors of warmth and of coldness. Coldness points amount is significantly predominant comparatively to warmth points. Their maximal accumulation is on face skin. Coldness receptors in human being are located in epidermis and directly under it and warmth receptors – primarily in derma (proper skin) superior and middle layer. Coldness receptors are connected with thin myelinized and warmth receptors – with non-myelinized fibres.

Nociceptive sensation can occur either at injured stimulus action to special “noceoceptive” receptor – nociceptor, or at superstrong irritations of other receptors. Nociceptors are 25-40 per cent of all receptors. Nociceptors both of skin and of mucosa are represented by free non-incapsulated nervous endings of different shape (hairiness, spirals, plates et al.).

Nervous fibres carrying impulses from these receptors reach spine posterior corns grey substance, where second neuron is originated from. Second neuron reaches brain columns white substance and further – thalamus from where it is projected widely into different cortical regions.

 

Pain analizator (noceoceptive analizator). Physicians are familiar with pain as a common symptom in people who seek medical help. They use the description of its location, quality, and time course to determine its cause and they use the reported intensity to judge the intensity of treatment. The person who is experiencing pain is obviously less objective about it. From his or her point of view, the pain complaint is a cry for help. The subjective experience includes an urge to escape from the cause or, if that it is not possible, to obtain relief. It is this overhelming desire to make it stop that gives pain its power. It can produce fear and, if it persists, depression. Ultimately, the pain sufferer may lose the will till live. People have understood this power for millenia, using painful punishment (or the fear of it) to control the behavior of others. Parents, for instance, will punish their children physically when they have done something wrong. Children learn to associate pain with actions that are disapproved of by others. Because much of our behaviour, especially in early life, is shaped by the desire to avoid pain, the psychological reaction to it can be as complex as the individual who experiences it. This complexity has been a major stumbling block for physicians trying to understand and treat pain patients, particularly those with chronic pain.

Because it is a common experience with diverse psychological consequences, there have been many definitions of pain. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (2-nd ed.) defines it as “a distressing feeling due to disease, bodily injury, or organic disorders”. There exists such definitions more useful for clinical purposes: “pain is unpleasant sensation that is perceived as arising from a specific region of the body and is commonly produced by processes which damage or are capable of damaging bodily tissue”.

It is necessary to emphasize that pain is perceived as arising from a specific place in the body in order to distinguish it from moods (e.g., sadness) or body feelings such as hunger or warmth, which may be felt as arising from the body but not necessarily a particular body region. Another reason for this refinement is that the word ‘pain” is commonly used to denote emotional rather than bodily suffering (“a painful loss”) and it is used metamophorically to describe irritation (“a pain in the neck”; “that person is a pain”).

In most cases the sensation of pain is produced either by injury or by stimuli that are intense enough to be potentially injurious (noxious). Along with the subjective experience of pain, noxious stimuli elicit a variety of behaviours that all serve to protect uninjured tissues. Under different circumstances, tissues can be protected either by withdrawal reflexes, escape, immobilization of the injured part, or avoiding future encounters with similar damaging stimuli. Main function of pain sensory system is protective one. Some individuals can have lack of neural apparatus for noxious stimuli detection. They repeatedly injure themselves by failing to avoid high temperature, intense pressure, extreme twisting, or corrosive substances. They may be totally unaware of internal diseases that would be very painful in a normal person. On examinations they are usually found to have pressure sores, missing digits, and damaged weight-bearing joints. Loss of pain sensation can also lead to traumatic injuries in adults.

One can differentiate somatic and visceral pain. Somatic pain may be superficial (cutaneous) and deep (in muscles, bones, joints and connective tissue).

Nociceptors are divided into 2 types: mechanoreptors and chemoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors are getting excited as the result of mechanical movement of membrane that allows to sodium ions to penetrate inside and to cause nerve ending depolarization. Mechanoreceptor is located so that it provides the control of skin, epidermis, articulatory sacs, muscular surface. Excitement from the most mechanoreceptors are transmitted through “A” fibres. Chemoreceptors are located in the deeper tissular layers. They control oxidative processes level in tissues: at oxidation level reducing their self-excitement occurs. Ishemia (tissue blood supply decreasing or stoppage) independently from its reason leads to strong painful sensations development. Specific irritators for chemoreceptors are the substances released at cells injury: acethylcholine, histamine, serotonin, potassium ions, bradykinine, prostaglandines, leukotrienes, substance P. Some products of plasma, tissualr liquid may be activated while contact with side body, acid metabolic products, inflammation products and act to chemoreceptors. Prostaglandine E (is released at inflammation), blood coagulation contact factor – factor XII (Hageman’s factor), plasmine, bradykinines.

Central processes are directed to medulla oblongata where they are finished on neurons of nuclear complex consisting of main sensor nucleus and spinal tract. Excitement comes from second neurons to posterior and ventral specific thalamic nuclei, from which nociceptive excitement is directed to sensor zone and medial parts of brain hemispheres orbital cortex. The result of excitements coming into central brain parts is pain sensation forming with more or less expressed behavioral, emotional and vegetative reactions directed to oral cavity tissues integrity preserving.

We would like to tell some word about referred pain. It is likely that several mechanisms contribute to referred pain. In many instances, muscular contraction, tenderness and cutaneous hyperalgesia are produced by pathology in visceral organs. In these cases it is possible that there are secondary peripheral sites of nociceptive input that account for the spread of pain. Consistent with this idea is the observation that local anaesthetic injected into the site of refferal provides significant relief. In other situations, local anaesthetic injected at the site of referral has no effect on referred pain. In these latter cases, the mislocalization of pain is clearly due to a process in the CNS because there is no nociceptor input from the site in which the pain is felt.

Reffered pain is an important phenomenon to be aware of in patients with puzzling pain problems. Pain of visceral and musculo-sceletal origin is commonly projected to a distant, unstimulated structure and this is a potential source of confusion in patients whose diagnosis in in doubt. Obviously, if the case of the pain is not within the area that hurts, the clinician may be misled when looking for objective evidence of disease. Although spatial patterns of refferal are somewhat variable from patient to patient, the spinal segmental relationship between the diseased structure and the site of pain referral provides a basis for a systematic clinical examination.

Some CNS structures perform antinociceptive functions. These are separate nuclei of medulla oblongata, midbrain, hypothalamus and big hemispheres. Besides brain structures mentioned above there exist others, cellular elements, disseminated in CNS participating in noceoceptive sensitivity control. One can say about a whole network within the CNS that can selectively inhibit pain. This network has important brainstem components including the midbrain periaqueductal grey matter and adjacent reticular formation, which project to the spinal cord via the rostroventral medulla. This pathway inhibits spinal neurons that respond to noxious stimuli. There is also a pain-modulating pathway from the dorsoventral pons to the cord. The pathway from the rostral medulla to the cord is partly serotonineergic, whereas that from the dorsoventral pons is at least partly noradrenergic. In addition to these biogenic amine-containing neurons, endogenous opioid peptides are present in all the regions so far implicated in pain modulation. The opiod-mediated analgesia system can be activated by electrical stimulation or by opiate drugs such as morphine. It can also be activated by pain, stress and suggestion. Although by no means proven, it seems probable that this pain-modulating system contributes to the well-known variability of perceived pain in people with apparently similar injuries. Alongside with well-known opiate and serotoninergic mechanisms we should mentione dophamine-, choline- and adrenergic mechanisms switched on in noceoceptive sensitivity regulation at different CNS levels.

Pain threshold size depends on nociceptive analizator interconnection to antinociceptive system and can be modulated due to changes the activity of not only noceoceptive analizator afferent systems but also due to nociceptive system activity. Pain threshold is often changed at emotional states which in dependence on emotions type either activate antinoceptive system (aggression, fury), increasing pain threshold, or decrease its activity (fear), reducing pain threshold.

At the present time only 2 processes have definitely been associated with clinical pain syndromes: cortical epileptiform discharge, which is actually a rare cause of pain, and sympathetic efferent facilitation (or sensitization) of the peripheral therminals of primary afferents. It is not clear whether sympathetically maintained pains depend on increased or abnormal discharge in sympathetic efferents, increased sensitivity of primary afferents, a change in the central actions of afferents sensitive to sympathetic efferents, or some combination of these factors. Loss of myelinated afferent inhibition of spinal pain transmission cells contributes to clinical pain. Thus, in normal subjects, with selective blockade of peripheral nerve myelinated axons, cutaneous stimuli result in exagerrated, summating sensations that have a burning, dysesthetic quality similar to what is reported by many patients with painful injuries to peripheral nerve. On the other hand, since most patients with nerve injuries do not have spontaneous pain, it is likely that pain of nerve injury is due to a combinations of factors. For example, in causalgia, the pain may result from a combination of loss of myelinated afferent inhibition, ectopic impulse generation at the site of nerve injury, and sympathetic activation of primary afferents. In tic doloureux, and the lancinating pain associated with demyelinating disease, the sympathetic nervous system does not contribute to the pain, and ectopic impulse generation from a demyelinated patch of axon is a more likely cause of the distinctive pain pattern. With brachial plexus avulsion, the pain may be primarily due to hyperactivity of deafferented spinal pain transmission cells.

Psychologic and psychophysiologic aspect is essential in pain assessment. People experience pain freaquently. Most people accept usual pain as a normal, if unpleasant, part of life. They ignore the pain or treat themselves with over-the-counter drugs or home remedies, and go about their lives. Although there are no systematic studies of the psychological impact of common pains on the individuals who suffer from them it is likely that mild frustration, irritability, and impatience are the normal responses. Obviously, the psychophysiological reaction will be greater when the pain is sufficient to interfere with normal activities. The telephone surve referred to above also found that functional impairment resulting from pain is very common in the general population. It is not clear why pain produces a functional impairment in some people, whereas most are able to carry on with their lives despite it. Intensity is obviously a major factor. A second important factor is the meaning of the pain to the individual. This is closely tied to location and quality. For example, chest pain in a person who has previously suffered myocardial infarction may be partially disabling because it is interpreted as life threatening. In addition, clinical observation suggest that differences in personality traits between individuals contribute to the variation to their responses to pain. Finally, there is evidence for psychological factors in the home or at work can help perpetuate pain complaints and functional impairment.

Affective responses to painful injury or disease range from annoyance to agony desperation. If a painful injury or disease occurs in a person who has psychophysiological problems, the degree of suffering is likely to be out of proportion to the severity of the somatic pain. Some common symptoms in patients with chronic (persistent) pain are the following: depressed mood, sleep disturbance, somatic preoccupation, reduced activity, reduced libido, fatigue. Thus, a major task for the clinicians dealing with pain patients especially those with chronic pain is to assess the contribution of psychological and somatic factors. Unfortunately, there is always a degree of uncertainity about such assessments because there is no way to objectively measure how intense a person’s pain actually is.

The problem of assessment is also compounded by the fact that patients are often unaware of or reluctant to discuss the most relevant psychological issues. A mild somatic pain may be emphasized by a depressed or anxious patient because it is more socially acceptable to seek medical than psychiatric help. Thus, the of help sought by the patient is often inappropriate to his or her significant problem. Individuals complainting of chronic pain freaquently deny that they have any problems unrelated to their pain and resist psychiatric evaluation. Unfortunately, for many such patients approaches that ignore the psychological factors are not likely to produce any long-term benefit. Clearly, the adequate assessment and treatment of patients with persistent pain demands attention to both somatic and psychological factors. Other aspect: one more problem confronting the clinician is how to deal with a patient who complaints a somatic pain but has no obvious somatic cause for it. It is likely that many such patients actually do have a somatic cause for their pain but physicians lack the tools to demonstrate it. On other hands, a variety of psychiatric syndroms and psychological mechanisms may also contribute to the problem. It is doubtly that there are distinctly different approaches to the study and analysis of the psychology of chronic pain patients.

All mentioned underlies essential importance of nociceptive and antinociceptive system physiology and psychophysiology knowledge to doctor of any speciality.

 

Auditory analizator.

Ear is the organ of hearing. Ear can be divided on 3 parts:

1. external ear:

· auricle - collects sound waves;

· external auditory meatus: conducts sound waves from auricle to tympanic membrane;

2. middle ear (tympanic cavity):

· tympanic membrane: forms lateral wall of tympanic cavity; circular and concave from outside; point of maximum concavity is called umbo, where handle of malleus is attached;

· contents: air, auditory ossicles, tensor, tympani muscle and stapedius muscle;

· windows: there are 2 windows in medial wall to tympanic cavity, round window and oval window.

3. internal ear:

· cochlea;

· vestibular apparatus.

Auditory ossicles:

· malleus;

· incus;

· stapes.

Arrangements:

· handle of malleus is attached to umbo of tympanic membrane;

· other end of malleus is bound to incus by ligaments;

· opposite end of incus articulates with stem of stapes;

· foot plate of stapes lies against membraneous labyrinth in oval window, where sound waves are conducted into cochlea.

Functions:

Auditory ossicles increase pressure exerted by sound waves on fluid of cochlea. Thus, provide impedance matching between sound waves in air and sound vibrations in fluid of cochlea.

Muscles of ossicles:

1. Tensor tympani - pulls handle of malleus inward, thus, keeps tympanic membrane tenses.

2. Stapedius – pulls stapes out from oval window.

Eustachial tube – is a tube connecting middle ear cavity with pharynx.

Function: equilizes pressure on either side of tympanic membrane.

Hearing – is the sense by which sounds are perceived.

Sound - is effect produced on organ of hearing by vibrations of air molecules. Sound doesn’t travel through vacuum. The unit of sound intensity is decibel.

Noise – is a disturbing sound.

How sound is heard

Ear receives sound waves, discriminates their freaquencies, and finally transmits auditory information onto the central nervous system where its meaning is deciphered.