Semantic types of phraseological units.

The classification suggested by prof. V. V. Vinogradov has been widely adopted by linguists. It includes:(1) phraseological combinations (set phrases, standardised word combinations), i.e. phrases characterised by limited combinability of their components that retain their semantic independence: to make friends (but not * to do friends or * to make comrades), to meet the request/requirement, подавати надію, страх бере, зачепити гордість, покласти край. The meaning of such phrases is transparent and typically expressed by cognitive trite metaphors,(2) phraseological unities, i.e. phrases in which the meaning of the whole is not the sum of the meanings of the components, but it is based on them, and the motivation is apparent: to stand to one’s guns (3) phraseological fusions, i.e. phrases in which the meaning cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meanings of its components: tit for tat A deeper consideration reveals the following semantic classes of phraseological units:(1) fusions— completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups: e.g., to show the white feather “to betray one’s cowardice”, to pull smb. ’ s leg “to deceive smb.”, to bell the cat “to take a risk for the good of others”, red tape “bureaucratic delays”, a white elephant “a present one can’t get rid of”, once in a blue moon “hardly at all or hardly ever”, etc.,(2) half-fusions— stable word-groups in which the leading component is literal, while the rest of the group is idiomaticaly fused: e.g., to rain cats and dogs “to rain heavily”, to talk through one ’ s hat “to talk foolishly”, to work double tides “to work very hard”, to buy smth. for a song “to buy smth. very cheaply”, to pay through the nose “to pay unreasonably much”, etc.,(3) unities— metaphorically motivated idioms: e.g., to make a mountain out of a molehill “to become excited about trifles”, to play second fiddle “to have a lower or less important position”, to wash one ’ s dirty linen in public “to tell people about one’s hidden sins and faults”, a snake in the grass “a person with harmful intentions, a hidden enemy”, etc.,(4) half-unities— binary word-groups in which one of the components is literal, while the other is phraseologically bound (the so-termed phrasemes): e.g., black frost “frost without ice or snow”, small talk “polite talk about unimportant things”, a tall story “a lie”, Dutch courage “courage of a drunk”, husband ’ s tea “very weak tea”, to talk turkey “to talk plainly and honestly about practical matters”, etc.,(5) phraseological collocations (standardized phrases)—word-groups with a standardized combinability of the components: e.g., to bear a grudge, to break silence, to make sure, to take into account, unconditional surrender, ways and means, now and then, etc., and(6) phraseological expressions— proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations: e.g., Birds of a feather flock together—Рибалка рибалку бачить здалеку, Still water runs deep—Тиха вода греблю рве; No pains no gains—Без труда нема плода; Something is rotten in the state of Denmark—Не все гаразд у Датському королівстві, справи йдуть не так, як треба; Brevity is the soul of wit—Стислість—основа дотепності (W. Shakespeare); Fools rush in where angels fear to tread—Дурням закон не писаний (A. Pope), etc. In A. V. Kunin’s classification, set expressions are divided into 3 classes:(1) idioms, or idiomatic expressions,—set expressions with fully or partially transferred meanings: e.g., to show the white feather, an odd (queer) fish,(2) semi-idioms, which have both literal and figurative meanings: e.g., chain reaction, to lay down one’s arms, and(3) phraseomatic units —set expressions with literal but complex meanings (the meaning is phraseomatically bound): e.g., to raise one’s eyebrows, to pay attention (a visit), at the best, etc. Grammatical properties of idioms and set expressions Idiomatic and set expressions, i.e. lexically and often structurally stable units of lexicon, present a universal phenomenon. Structurally, they may be in all languages:(1) sentence idioms (time and tide wait for no man,),(2) word-group idioms (Ten Commandments, to be or not to be, (3) metaphorically generalised proper names (sometimes geographical names) as Jack Ketch (hangman), Tom Tailor (tailor), Tom Thumb (a small man, a Liliputian), Mrs. Grundy, Tom, Dick, and Harry (перший-ліпший The typical constructions of phraseological units are:(1) alliterative comparisons: dead as a dodo (dead as in extinct), fit as a fiddle (in good health), as good as gold (well behaved),(2) noun phrases: a blind alley (a route that leads nowhere, a false trail), a close shave (a narrow escape), a red letter day (a day that will never be forgotten),(3) prepositional phrases: at sixes and sevens (unable/unwilling to agree), by hook or by crook (by whatever methods prove necessary), in for a penny, in for a pound (involved irrespective of cost),(4) verb + noun phrase: to kick the bucket (die), to pop your clogs (die), to spill the beans (reveal a secret), and(5) verb + preposition phrase: to be in clover (to be exceptionally comfortable), to be in the doghouse (to be in disgrace), to be between rock and a hard place (to have no room for manoeuvre).Presumably common in all languages are also the paradigmatic classes of idioms, which may be:(1) substantival (the Trojan horse, the sword of Damocles,),(2) verbal (to have one’s heart in one’s mouth, to take the bull by the horns; (3) adjectival (as good as gold, as pretty as a picture, more dead than alive),(4) adverbial (by and again, tit for tat,),(5) interjectional (by Jeorge! by Jove! my aunt!), and(6) introductory (after all, as a matter of fact).Idiomatic expressions can perform functions in the sentence, namely those of:(1) the subject (Hobson’s choice is an idiom;),(2) the predicate/predicative (That was a Hobson’s choice for him;),(3) the object (He translated “ Hobson’s choice ” into Ukrainian correctly;), and(4) the adverbial modifier (He will do it by hook or by crook;