The principal ways of w-formation Compounding .

Compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or (especially if more than two stems are involved) composition is the process of word-formation that creates compound/composite lexemes. From the semantic viewpoint compounds are divided into: completely motivated (e.g., hairbrush, classroom, partially motivated (flower-bed, work-out) non-motivated (are so-called idiomatic compounds): the meaning of the unit cannot be understood from the meanings of its components: wall-flower, forget-me-not. 2main ways of forming compounds in English by the juxtaposition (placement) of the determining and the determined parts. The largest group of compounds formed through this way: fountain-pen, godmother, inkpot, lockout, mankind. with the help of the linking/interfixal o, e, s in English and о, е/є, у in Ukrainian: Anglo-Saxons, electro-kinetics (less productive). composite words (mostly nouns, adjectives, and some adverbs) formed from word-combinations or sentences, for example: for-get-me-not, merry-go-round, East-end, kiss-in-the-ring (game), love-lies-bleeding (plant) According to the relationships between the components, compounds can be coordinative and subordinative.In coordinate / coordinative compounds both constituents bear equal structural, syntactic, and semantic weight. For example, bittersweet, writer-director (the same person) Subordinative compounds (determinative) are made of components that are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on domination of one component over the other: e.g., ice-cold (cold like ice), catfood (food for cats According to the structure,: (1) compounds consisting of simple stems e.g., railway, key-board, snow-white, (2) compounds in which at least one of the components is a derived stem: e.g., shoe-maker, pen-holder, snow-covered, (3) сompounds that contain at least one of clipped stem): e.g., photo-intelligence, T-shirt, TV-set, etc.; (4) compounds with at least one of the components as a compound stem: e.g., wastepaper-basket, newspaper-ownership, (5) derivational compounds, or compound-derivatives, in which the structural integrity of the free stems is ensured by an affix referring to the combination as a whole, not to one of its elements. E.g., in English: kind heart → kind-hearted, school boy → schoolboyishiness, warming-pan, and also adjectives/participles: absent-minded, heart-shaped, three-coloured,

23). The principal ways of word-formation. Reduplication, shortening (clipping and abbreviation), and blending.
Reduplication s a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is repeated exactly or with a slight change; is more productive in English. English reduplications are often only somewhat different ablaut combinations. Cf.: bibble-babble, chit-chat,), ding- tip-top. the English language is especially rich in rhymed reduplications which are rare in our colloquial speech: boogy-woogie, hurry-scurry (great hurry), Humpty-Dumpty вайло. Contraction (clipping) can be of four positional types: (a) final clipping (apocope), i.e. omission of the final part of the word: e.g., doc (<doctor), lab (<laboratory), mag (<magazine), Nick (<Nickolas), etc., (b) initial clipping (apheresis), i.e. omission of the fore part of the word: e.g., phone (<telephone), plane (<aeroplane), story (<history), van, etc., (c) medial clipping (syncope), i.e. omission of the middle part of the word: e.g., maths (<mathematics), fancy (<fantasy), specs (<spectacles), etc., and (d) mixed clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the word are clipped: e.g., tec (<detective), flu (<influenza), etc. Contraction may be combined with affixation: e.g., hanky (<handkerchief), comfy (<comfortable), unkie (<uncle), ammo (<ammunition), etc. Abbreviations (initial shortenings) are words produced by shortening the components of phrasal terms up to their initial letters.. 4 common groups: (a) acronyms - are abbreviated words formed from the initial letters of a word-combination AIDS (b) alphabetic abbreviations,in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress: e.g., USA, BBC, MP, FBI (c) graphic abbreviations, and which are used in texts for economy of space. They are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words, e.g., Mr. (<Mister), m. (<mile), ft. (<foot/feet), v. (<verb), ltd. (<limited), govt. (<government(d) compound abbreviations. ) in which the first component is a letter (letters) and the second is a complete word: e.g., A-bomb (<atomic bomb), V-day (<Victory day), Z-hour (<zero hour), L-driver (<learner-driver) Blending is a rather productive type of compounding in English.. Blends or “ telescoped ” words (the process is called telescoping because the words seem to slide into one another like sections of a telescope) are formed by confrontation of two or even more truncated words or roots of words, for example: avia (tion) + (electr) onics > avionics, fan (tasy) + (maga) zine > fanzine, mo (torist) + (ho) tel > motel, sm (ock) + (f) og > smog some ways of making blends or types of blending in English. (a) blends which are made up from the initial part of the first word or word-group and the complete second word consisting of a root morpheme or a stem only: cinema + (ac) tress = cinematress, para (litic gas) + bomb = parabomb, super (sonic) + jet = superjet, para (chute) + glider = paraglider, bas (ket) + cart = bascart, etc.; (b) by combining the root morpheme/stem of the first word and the stem of the truncated initial part of the second word: hay + (si) lage = haylage (силосна яма), pay + (pa) triotism = paytriotism, sea +(heli) copter = seacopter, motor + (caval) cade = motorcade, etc. (c) by combining blends of the initial stem and the final part of the second word: man + (En) glish = Manglish, radio + (elec) trician = rediotrician, cinema + (m) agnate = cinemagnate, book + (ad) vertising = bookvertizing, etc.

24) The principal ways of word-formation. Back-formation (reversion), conversion, and accentual word-formation.
Back-formation, or reversion, is a rather productive type of word-formation in English, where many short words are inferred from longer words. It is in this way that verbs are derived from affixed nouns: own < owning, beg < beggar, brag < bragging, broke < broker, edit < editor. English compound verbs are often formed by back-formation from compound nouns: to aircondition < air conditioning, to baby-sit < baby sitter, to house-clean < house-cleaner, to house-keep < house-keeping, etc.Similarly formed are also English verbs from adjectives: luminisce < luminiscent, reminisce < reminiscent, frivol < frivolous, etc.Also nouns are formed quite in the same way from adjectives: greed < greedy, nast < nasty, cantankar < cantankerous), etc. Conversion is productive in English. It finds its realisation in a definite word acquiring a part of or all the lexico-grammatical features of some other part of speech. Thus, abjectives may become wholly substantivised or partially substantivised.
Wholly substantivised adjectives acquire all properties of regular nouns. E.g.: a criminal, a black, a white. Partially substantivised adjectives have only some features of nouns (no genitive case, no plural form): the deaf and dumb, the French, the invited, the useful, in the open, in the affirmative, etc Partially substantivised in English may also be other parts of speech, for example, (a) verbs: that is a must with me, let’s have a go, a quiet read, after supper, the haves and have-nots; (b) numerals: a sign of four, King Charles the First, page ten, to receive a one/a two; (c) pronouns: a little something, a good for nothing, the all of it, those I’s of his; (d) adverbs: I don’t know his whereabouts, he is on leave, etc.On the other hand, nouns may be adjectivised. Cf. the market prices, London docks, average incomes/wages, Kyiv streets, the Dnieper banks, the Ukraina hotel, etc. Nouns may also be adverbialised. Cf.: going home, to come by chance, on the outskirts of Kyiv, to come by air/ by train, in English.
Among the productive English word-forming types is converting nouns into verbs or verbs into nouns, adjectives into nouns or nouns into adjectives, which can be seen from the examples below: (1) N>V: a chairman > to chairman, a butcher > to butcher, a boss > to boss, an X-ray > to X-ray. (2) V>N: to catch > the catch, to look > a look, to ride > a ride, to know how > (the) know-how. Accentual word-formation is isomorphic in the morphological systems of both languages. Nevertheless, words thus formed in English generally change both their lexico-grammatical (morphological) nature and meaning. Cf. 'accent (n.) – ac'cent (v.), 'conduct (n.) – con'duct (v.), 'export (n.) – ex'port (v.), 'permit (n.) – per'mit (v.), though 'mankind (n.) (чоловіча половина людства) – man'kind (n.) людство, but: 'comment (v.) – 'comment (n.), ex'cuse (v.), ex'cuse (n.). What are the other types of word-formation? The sound interchange (or gradation, e.g., short vs. long vowels ): live – life, prove – proof, sit – seat, etc. Sound imitation (or onomatopoeia): onomatopoeic words are made by imitating sounds produced by living beings and inanimate objects: babble, bang, buzz, crash, giggle, hiss, moo, purr, rustle,, etc. Lexicalization of some plural forms of nouns like colour – colours (military banner), glass – glasses (eye-glasses, opera-glasses), line – lines (poetic works),