Communicative types of set expressions

Set expressions can be subdivided into the following types:(1) cliches. These are generally defined as expressions that have become hackneyed or trite: e.g., a crushing defeat, a rising star, growing awareness, free of charge (2) proverbs, which are complete utterances representing facts of language-and-life, usually based on folklore: e.g., The proof of the pudding is in its eating, A rolling stone gathers no moss, (3) sayings. They also represent life truths and observations. However, unlike proverbs, they are separate phrases, rather than sentences: e.g., to cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth (4) epigrams or aphorisms (sometimes called famous quotations or sayings). These are utterances by famous people expressed in life of literary work: e.g., Take care of the sense, and the sounds will take care of themselves (Lewis Carrol), The busy have no time for tears (George Biron)Unlike with proverbs, we know the names of the individuals who coined the expressions;5) quotations. A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book or oral speech used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. They are usually inserted in the text by means of inverted commas, with a reference to the author of the quotation. E.g., Eliot said: “Some editors are failed writers, but so are most writers” (6) allusions. These are indirect references, by word phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing: e.g., I hope to see you again, so that we could together toil in the vineyards of the Lord (трудитися на ниві Господа —an allusion to the Bible). Western linguists tend to use the term ‘saying’ in a general sense to refer to a short, clever expression that usually contains advice or expresses some obvious truth. The classify sayings under a number of different terms, of which proverb is probably the best known. Other types of saying are adage, maxim, motto, epigram and aphorism, though the distinction between them is often vague:– proverb: a piece of common-sense wisdom expressed in practical, homely terms (e.g., A stitch in time saves nine),– adage: a time-honored and widely known saying (e.g., Where there’s smoke, there’s fire),– maxim: a general rule of behaviour drawn from practical experience (e.g., Neither a borrower nor a lender be),– motto: a maxim adopted as a principal of conduct (e.g., Honesty is the best policy),– epigram: a brief, witty, or satirical statement that often gains effect through paradox (e.g., The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it), and– aphorism: similar to an epigram but more profound rather than witty (e.g., He is a fool that cannot conceal his wisdom). Synonymy in phraseology has been greatly enriched by various processes of the meaning shift as well as by the influx of foreign words and phrases. Absolute synonyms which have the same meaning and connotation are comparatively rare: e.g., over head and ears = up to the neck; a pretty kettle of fish = a nice pair of shoes; Relative synonyms denote different shades of different degrees of common meaning: e.g., to come to a conclusion, to jump at a conclusion, to leap at a conclusion. In stylistic synonyms, the difference is not so much in the meaning as in the emotional colouring: e.g., to be in high spirits (neutral) – to be on high ropes (colloquial); заснути вічним сном (poetic) – простягти ноги (colloquial). Antonyms can be opposed to each other in their concrete meanings: e.g., an old sea wolf – a young calf of a mate; The elements of the phraseological units-antonyms are usually expressed by the same part of speech: e.g., safe and sound – dead and gone; It is possible to use a negation Polysemy is observed in set expressions having various meanings whose realization depends on the context. Phraseological dictionaries give numerous examples of context sensitive implication observed in phraseology. The phrase to be on the go, for instance, can mean: (a) “to be at work”, “to be on the move”; (b) “to be going to leave”; (c) “to be in a hurry”; (d) “to be drunk”: e.g., (a) Her real faith—what was it? Now to let a friend down... not to funk, to do things differently from other people, to be always on the go, not to be stuffy, not to be dull (Galsworthy); (b) The guest was on the go for half an hour though the host began to show signs of impatience; (c) He is always on the go; (d) The wine made him a little bit on the go. Homonymous idiomatic expressions have the same written or spoken form, but they carry different meanings: e.g., hit the roof/ceiling is used to describe a situation when prices increase suddenly and rapidly or when a person becomes angry and starts shouting at someone.