The principal ways of word-formation

The principal ways of word-formation in the contrasted languages are isomorphic. They are the following: (1) morphological, (2) morphologico-syntactic, (3) lexico-semantic, and (4) lexico-syntactic.The most productive of them in English and Ukrainian is the morphological way, which is realised with the help of the following means: affixation, compounding, and non-affixal word-formation. The latter way should not be confused with the many words of zero affixes (without any affixes). This way of word-formation is very productive in English. Cf.: go, come, boy, world, Affixation. An affix is a morpheme (the smallest meaningful unit in grammar) that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational (like English pre-, -ness, etc.) or inflectional (like English plural -s and past tense -ed, etc.). The latter are bound (dependent) morphemes by definition, but prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process used to form different words by adding morphemes (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation and interfixation) or the end (suffixation) of words. From the semantic point of view, all morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: (a) roots (radicals) and (b) affixes. Derivational morphemes are word-building affixes (e.g., pre historic), whereas inflectional morphemes are form-building affixes. In English the latter are usually known as inflexions/inflections/endings or form-building suffixes: e.g., boy → boy s; I am read ing. An infix is a morpheme that is placed within a word; these are rare, though, for example, the English word cupful can be made plural as cupsful by inserting the plural s as an infix.. An infix appears as an empty (meaningless) morpheme. An interfix is a linking affix in some compounds. A confix (or circumfix) is an affix consisting of a prefix and a suffix affixed simultaneously to the root: e.g., en light en...A stem is the part of the word consisting of a root and an affix; the stem is the part of the word which remains unchangeable throughout the paradigm. In English stems and roots often coincide: work, port,Stems that coincide with roots are called simple stems: e.g., boy, tree s, read s, etc. Stems that contain one or more affixes are derived stems: e.g., teacher ’ s, undecipherable, etc. Binary stems comprising two simple or derived stems are called compound stems: e.g., machine-gunner ’ s, school-boyish, etc.In the course of history, usually as a result of borrowing, there appear synonymous (semantically identical/similar) affixes. For example, the suffixes -er, -or, -ist, -ent, -ant, -eer, -ian, -man, -ee, -ess are synonymous morphemes in English denoting “an agent, the doer of an actionSeveral morphemes are polysemic, i.e., a certain form, being a component of words which belong to the same part of speech, can express different meanings: cf., blu ish (a.) sculpt or (n.):: react or (n.). Homonymic morphemes have the same form and different meaning, being components of words that belong to different parts of speech: cf., quick ly (adv.):: love ly (a.);One should distinguish between the homonymy of derivational affixes, on the one hand, and the homonymy of such affixes and inflections, on the other: cf., work er (n.):: long er (comp. d. of a.); gold en (a.):: tak en (past part.). From the etymological point of view, affixes are classified according to their origin into native (e.g., English -er, -nese, -ing, un-, mis-, etc.) and borrowed (e.g., Romanic -tion, -ment, -ance, re-, sub-,, etc.; Greek, e.g., -ist, -ism, anti From the structural point of view, morphemes fall into three types: (a) free morphemes, (b) bound morphemes, and (c) semi-free (semi-bound) morphemes. A free-morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. A great many root-morphemes are free, i.e. their root morphemes coincide with the stem of the word (e.g., friend ship,). A bound-morpheme exists only as a part of a word. Affixes are usually considered to be bound-morphemes (-ness, -ize, -ship, dis-, de-), but many root-morphemes, especially those of Greek or Romanic origin, are also bound morphemes, e.g., conce ive, theor etical. Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are those that can function both as an affix and as a free morpheme (e.g., well and half in well-known,).Morphemes may have a definite lexical meaning though are not used as autonomous words, e.g., tele-, -scope, -graph, etc. Such morphemes are usually called combining forms or bound root morphemes Positional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus, the prefix in- (intransitive) can be represented by allomorph il- (illegal), im - (immortal), and ir- (irregular Affixes can also be classified into productive (e.g., -er, -ness, -able, -y, -ize, un-, re-,.) and non-productive (e.g., -th, -hood, -en, -ous.). There are also partially productive affixes: e.g., be-, mis-, dis-, co-, -lin, -ese, -ster, -ie, -let, etc. Suffixation is the formation of words by adding a suffix to the stem. Thus, suffixal morphemes help to form nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, and adverbs. These word-forming suffixes also belong to the same semantic groups. Among the noun-forming suffixes there are distinguished the following (1) Agent suffixes -ist/-icт, -ист:; -ant, -ent); -er/-or nouns formed with the help of the suffix -er often have meanings other than that of denoting “performer of an action.” They may denote (a) process: blabber, (b) psychological state: admirer (c) physical perception: heaver (d) instrument: fanner (e) banknotes: fiver – п’ятірка (f) time of activity: fourter чотирикурсник. The suffix -er is also used to form jargonisms like crammer, kisser, peeper, etc. No less different meanings are also expressed by nouns formed with the help of other suffixes of this class, as for example: -ier/-yer: cashier, employer, проводир; -eer auctioneer, profiteer, -ard/-art drunkard, (2) The English suffix -ee forms nouns denoting reception of action: employee. (3) Suffixes denoting numerous abstract notions: -ing clothing -ism (): Americanism, -ness darkness, -tion corruption, -dom: beggardom, -hood (widowhood,

(4) evaluative suffixes which are of two types: (a) diminutive and (b) augmentative which are not available in English.English diminutive suffixes are: -et/-ette: booklet; -let: kinglet; -y/-ie, -ey: dolly; -ling: duckling; -kin: ladikin; -el/-le: morsel; -cule: monticle; -een: velveteen; -ock: hillock, -ing: lording; -ee: bootee, and some others.The evaluative suffix -ard has no augmentative but only a negative meaning in English, e.g.: bastard. (5) Gender/sex expressing suffixes English “gender suffixes”, as they are sometimes called by grammarians, are in reality only sex expressing, but not grammatical gender expressing, e.g.: actor – actress, waiter – waitress. (6) International suffixes, which are mostly of common nature (origin) and meaning in English and Ukrainian. For example, the suffixes -er: -or: -ist: -ism: аtion – Here also belongs the suffix -аblе Suffixation-based word-building models. The derivative function of suffixes finds its realisation in the existence of common word-building models. The major word-forming models N+Suf=N: hostess, gunner; V+Suf=N: reader, construction; A+Suf=N: freedom, hardship; D+Suf=N: earliness, slowliness; Q+Suf=N: primacy, primaries; A+Suf=V: actualise, modernise; N+Suf=A: glorious, earthy; A+Suf=A: bluish, lonely; N+Suf=D: homeward, daily; A+Suf=D: longwise, simply; D+Suf=D: onwards, outwards.

Prefixation is the formation of words by adding a prefix to the stem. prefixes can be typologically subdivided(1) International prefixes whose lingual form and meaning are identical in the contrasted languages. Their form-building capacities are equal in the contrasted languages too, which can be seen from the following structural models: anti-+A=A: antiglobal, anti-British; anti-+N=N: antimonopolist, antibody, counter-+N=N: countermeasure, countermarch, counter-+V=V: counterpoint, counterattack, counterplot, ex-+N=N: ex-champion, ex-president, extra-+A=A: extraordinary, extramural, extraactive, sub-+N=N: submarine, subordination, sub-+A=A: subordinary, subtropical, (2) National prefixes, which refer to a large group of prefixes that have in the contrasted languages only semantic identity but they are different in their lingual form: foresee, extra-natural intraarterial –; non-party – позапартійний, sub-species The formation of new words with the help of prefixes and suffixes is performed in English and according to four common morphological/structural models: (1) one prefix + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix: (a) forming nouns: dis-arma-ment, en-rich-ment, for-cast-er, un-suspect-ness (adj, verbs, adverbs) (2) two or more prefixes + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix, as in the nouns over-sub-scrip-tion, re-im-prison-ment, re-in-carn-ation, (2) two or more prefixes + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix, as in the nouns over-sub-scrip-tion, re-im-prison-ment, re-in-carn-ation, 4) Fewer nouns are formed according to the fourth and the most complicated structural model, combining two or more prefixes + root morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes, as in the words in-ac-count-abil-ity, in-dis-pens-abil-ity.