Trait theories in personality psychology

1. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences. One emphasis in this area is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes. Another emphasis views personality as the study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third area of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one another. These three viewpoints merge together in the study of personality.

2. Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. Critics of personality theory claim though that personality is “plastic” across time, places, moods, and situations. However, most personality theories emphasize stability over fluctuation.

3. Consequently, personality traits can be defined as enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts. Psychologists assume that these traits which are relatively stable over time and differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are shy) influence and predetermine people’s behavior in the greatest possible degree.

4. Trait models in psychology have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying causes of a person’s behavior. Another potential weakness with trait theories is that they lead people to accept oversimplified classifications, or worse offer advice, based on a superficial analysis of one’s personality. Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect of specific situations on people’s behavior. It’s important to remember that traits are statistical generalizations that don’t always correspond to an individual’s behavior.

 

1. Определите, является ли утверждение:

Many of the ideas developed by the historical and modern personality psychologists stem from basic philosophical assumptions they hold.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

2. Определите, является ли утверждение:

Personality psychology studies a person, his or her major psychological processes as well as similarities and differences between people.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

3. Определите, является ли утверждение:

Trait models in psychology have undergone criticism and some drawbacks have been found.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

4. Определите, является ли утверждение:

A personality is stable and doesn’t pass through any transitions.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

5. Какой части текста соответствует следующая информация:

Personality’s dynamism is a source of criticism of trait theories in psychology.

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6. Какой части текста соответствует следующая информация:

People’s behavior in a particular situation doesn’t depend only on their individual traits, but also on the situation itself.

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7. Ответьте на вопрос:

What is the connection between a person’s traits and his or her behavior in a particular situation?

o Personality traits influence a person’s behavior, but much depends on the situation.

o The situations in which people find themselves fully define their behavior which has nothing to do with personality characteristics.

o There is no connection between a person’s behavior and his or her personality characteristics.

o People’s behavior is fully predetermined by their personality traits.

8. Основная идея текста:

o A person is a complex phenomenon.

o Trait theories are valuable for personality psychology but can’t fully explain a person behavior.

o It’ll never be possible to perceive the relationship between human personality and behavior.

o Psychologists argue about the basic aspects of human nature.

 

Кейс-задача 20

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Clinical psychology may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony and program development and administration. Others may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury – this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

2. The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client – usually an individual, couple, family or small group – that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling or behaving.

3. The four major perspectives are Psychodynamic, Cognitive Behavioral, Existential-Humanistic and Systems or Family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are bout of equal effectiveness. Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.

4. Clinical psychologists don’t usually prescribe medication. In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get all their therapeutic needs met. Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as social workers and nutritionists.

 

1. Определите, является ли утверждение:

To preclude stressful state of a person is the only important objective for clinical psychologists.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

2. Определите, является ли утверждение:

Clinical psychologist may employ medicine.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

3. Определите, является ли утверждение:

Psychologists tend to have limited prescribing privileges.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

4. Определите, является ли утверждение:

In clinical psychology usual treatment is done through combining different methods.

o истинным

o ложным

o в тексте нет информации

5. Какой части текста соответствует утверждение:

Well-being of client is achieved by implementing a number of techniques.

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6. Какой части текста соответствует утверждение:

Clinical psychology finds the widest application in different areas dealing with psychic disorders.

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7. Ответьте на вопрос:

What does the science of clinical psychology study?

o It studies effectiveness of medication.

o Its object is integration of various therapeutic approaches.

o The object of studies of clinical psychology is psychotherapy

o It studies both realization and treatment of mental health problems.

8. Основная идея текста:

o There is no necessity in medication usage in mental therapy.

o Clinical psychologists can work in various spheres of psychology.

o Implementation of therapies of some commonness is characteristic of clinical psychology.

o Equal importance of different therapies has been proved.

PART III

UNIT 1

THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE FORMATION AND

TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE

LEON DYCZEWSKI

FAMILY AND CULTURE

The culture of every society, of any social group whatsoever, is made up of three basic elements: 1) values and ideas; 2) modes of behavior which are not casual or sporadic, but the realization of a distinctive behavioral pattern created by definite norms that induce an individual to behave in one way rather than another (for example, the pattern of behavior in a place of worship causes the Moslem to take off his shoes before entering it, the Jew to cover his head, the Catholic to take off his hat and genuflect before the Blessed Sacrament); 3) objects which are the effects of the values, ideas and modes of behavior which are the essential or core elements of every culture. Being immaterial, they are hidden in signs which can be either modes of behavior or objects. Concrete values join with a specific mode of behavior within a group, so that the same behavior or object may have different meanings for persons belonging to various social groups. Thus, for some the cross means punishment and disgrace, for others it is the redemption of mankind, for others it has an artistic value because made by a good artist, while for yet others it affirms the culture of which it is typical, for example, the cross with three diagonal beams in the Ukraine.

The meaning of modes of behavior and of objects is passed on from person to person and from generation to generation, thereby making interpersonal communication possible. In this communication everything has its own meaning: bowing the head as well as raising the brows, shaking hands, a smile or giving a present. Interpersonal communication, then, has a symbolic character. Symbolic communication may be carried out directly ("face to face") or indirectly. In the former, persons can interchange roles so that the same person is at one time the giver and at another time the receiver of the message. The communication is carried out by speech, mimicry, bodily gestures, the voice, sound, smell or objects. Indirect symbolic communication takes place when the persons who exchange the meaning do not see each other or live in the same place, do not know each other personally or live at the same time. In this case, the transmission of meaning is done through such lasting means as writing, a picture, a sculpture or a building. Here there is no interchange of rules between the givers to the receiver as in the case of direct communication.

Direct communication is superior to indirect symbolic communication, for by appropriate modes of behavior values, ideas or norms can be expressed more fully, and its meaning and mode of realization can be shown. This can evoke a strong emotional experience as well, thereby strengthening its acceptance or rejection. This type of symbolic communication takes place within small groups, among which the family belongs in the first place. It is precisely the family with its many features that brings about the creation and transmission of meaning and hence the formation of culture. The family is the bridge to general culture, as well as its shelter when necessary. This role of the family in the formation and the transmission of culture are conditioned by some typical features, among which three must be mentioned.

First the family is a clearly separate or individualized group. Marriage, as well as natural consanguinity or legal relationship by virtue of adoption, set the limits of who belongs to this group and who does not. Those who constitute the family generally have the same surname in order to emphasize their distinctness from those who do not belong to it. Thus five, ten or more people bear the name Smith, Kowalski or Rizzi; they occupy a definite place and possess definite objects. They identify their house by means of a doorplate which declares to all that is their home and no stranger has the right to enter it without their invitation or at least consent.

The second feature of the family is the great differentiation regarding positions and roles assumed by the small number of its members. There are the positions and roles of husband-father, wife-mother, both parents together, daughter-sister, son-brother, children, father-in-law, mother-in-law, grandfather, grandmother, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, grandson, granddaughter, and more especially even great grandparents and great grandchildren. This system of position and roles in the immediate family becomes even more rich when expanded to included uncles and aunts, as well as their children. Thus, the number and variety of contacts is great, even within such a small social group as the family, and form in turn a distinct social system.

The third feature of the family group, especially important because of its role in the formation and the transmission of culture, is its types of interior contacts. These usually are direct, but can be also indirect, and either informal or formal. Their content includes matters both serious and trivial; they involve each one individually and all simultaneously; as a rule, they have emotional overtones and embrace the whole person; and they range from birth to death. Therefore, even when one deserts it, one cannot escape the family.

Due to these features, the family possesses its own life: it is capable to creative activity, it can isolate itself from its environment and live as it sees fit; it can have its own system of values, its own norms and patterns of behavior; it can spend its leisure time and keep family feasts in its own way. Thus, it is the most formative group with regard to culture. This characteristic of the family manifests itself in various fields. In this present article, only the following formative tasks of the family will be discussed: 1) its molding of the creative person; 2) its formation of its own culture, as well as the system of values and the fundamental attitudes of its members; and 3) its linkage with a national and cultural identity. The conditions which lay the basis for the fulfillment of the role of the family in the formation of culture will be presented in the conclusion.