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Read aloud the minimal pairs below. Single out the phonemes which are contrasted.Содержание книги
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jug—bug led—laid lay—He judge—budge men—main say—sigh birch—-bird singe—sinned keen—coin try—Troy bays—buys lied—Lloyd burn—bone fork—folk fawn—phone fur—foe girl—goal read—reared lead—leered day—deer pays—peers pace—pierce pen—pain edge—age law—low saw—so gnaw—no pause—pose pearl—pole pursed—post curt—coat perch—poach cursed—coast red—rared very—vary bed—bared pier—pair dearie—dairy bay—by days—dies roars—rose awed—ode called—cold torn—tone barred—bowed Karl—cowl part—pout art—out no—now do—doer pear—poor my—mire write—riot bowered—b owed 2. Read these words. Pay attention to the allophonic difference of one and the same phoneme. /t/ aspirated: take, tall, tone unaspirated: steak, stall, stone no audible release: outpost, halfpin, football, white chalk nasal release: cotton, button, eaten, utmost lateral release: cattle, atlas, at last partly devoiced: do, dog, day voiced: leader, order, murder voiceless: bid, mad, road no audible release: good dog, bed time, good cheese nasal release: admit, road map, red map lateral release: middle, headless, badly, good luck ft/ aspirated: come, car, coal unaspirated: baker, talking, equal, secret no audible release: locked, deck chair, blackboard, dark night, black Imagic, begged lateral release: glow, bugle, struggle voiceless: dog, leg, vague partly devoiced: go, geese, girt, glass voiced; figure, eager, ago, begin f.5 3, Read these words. Pay attention to the positional allophones of the /1/ pho- neme.
pull—-mill fool—hall less—leak doll—girl let—list coal—twelve 4. Read these words. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the de voiced allophones of the /1, w, r/ phonemes after /p, t, k/. cleft twice cleg tweed ply quiet please quaver clerk queer try tree pry price cry crone crop plight—blight class—glass clad—glad clean—glean clue—glue 5. Read these words. Mind the distributional character of the /h/ phoneme. |he, hit, help, happy, half, hop, horn, hut, hook, who, her, habitual, hay, high, how, hoist, hoe, hear, hare, houri 6. Read these words. Pay attention to the complementary nature of soft and /p/ pea —paw /b/ bee —bark /t/ tea —talk /d/ deep—dope /k/ key —car /g/ geese —goose /t(7 cheese—chosej /dg/ jet —jar Щ far —fee /v/ veel —vote /9/ theme—thumb /5/ thee —those; /r/ read—rode /s/ see—saw
/z/ zeal—zone /j/ yes—young /Jf/ she—shoe /w/ we—wet /m/ me—met /n/ knee—net /п/ пол /п7 пёк /б/ бак /67 бязь /т/ ток /т7 тёк 1 Gimson А, С,
сон сёл зол зять шёлк /м/ мак /м7 мять /н/ нос /н7 нёс /л/ лад /л7 лёд /д/ да /ф1/ Фёкла /ж/ жар /и/ яр /д1/ дядя /в/ воз /ж'/ жжёщь /р/ рад] /к/ как /в7 вёз /х/ холм /р7 ряд Control Tasks 1. Give examples to prove that the following features of the English consonants and vowels are distinctive, orality—nasality 'plosiveness—constrictiveness labial- voicelessness—voicedness ' ity tenseness—laxness frontness—backness *2. Give examples of combinatory allophones of the /r/ phoneme. *3. What positional aflophones occur as a result of palatalization in the Russian language? *4. Give examples for 'different types of distribution: (a) complementary, (fa) contrast!ve, (c) free variation. 5. Give examples of: (a) single opposition, (b) double opposition, (c) multiple 6. Give theoretical and practical proofs to explain constitutive, recognitive 7. Match the words below to obtain minimal pairs. catch, pip, cheap, sap, he, jail, lap, pair, say, sink, rip, fail, lass, Sam, mink, cap, tear, she, lay, heap, match ENGLISH CONSONANTS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes. As has been pointed out the main method of establishing phonemes of a given language is the commutation test or discovery of minimal pairs through which the establishment of the phonemic status of each sound is accomplished. When in a contrastive pair one consonan;pnoneme is opposed to any other consonant phoneme in at least one position, this pair is called minimal,1 For example, in the minimal pair pen — Ben the phoneme /p/ is opposed to the phoneme /b/ due to the presence and absence of voice; it is the only distinctive feature of this minimal pair. All the other features of the pair pen — Ben are irrelevant. If there are more than one distinctive feature in a pair, it is called sub-minimal. For example, the pair treasure — pressure is sub-minimal because the opposition is due to: (1) the presence and absence of voice in the /g — J/ phonemes, (2) forelingual articulation of the /t/ phoneme and bilabial articulation of the /p/ phoneme. All the other fea- 1 "Minimal pairs are useful, when found, but not necessarily to be expected, and not essential to the work of analysis." 'ßteason H, A. Op. cit.— P. 280.) tures are distinctively irrelevant. Minimal pairs occur in identical, sub-minimal in similar environments. It should be borne in mind that distinctively irrelevant features can be of two types: incidental, which may or may not be present in a phoneme, and such, without which the phoneme can't exist at all. For example, the presence or absence of voice in the word final consonants /с, з/ in the Russian рос — роз is a 'genuinely incidental or redundant feature, whereas the forelingual articulation of /t/ and the bilabial articulation of /p/ are relevant differentiatory features. Palatalization is phonemically irrelevant, incidental in English and relevant in Russian, etc. The phonological analysis of the system of English consonant phonemes helps to establish 24 phonemes: /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, 9, 3, s, z, J\ 5. h, tj, 65, m, n, n, wt r, j, 1, a1/ Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of consonants of the English language. I. Work of the Vocal Cords and the Force of Exhalation Voiceless — fort is vst voiced — lenis /p—b/ pen—Ben /t—d/ ten—den /k—g/ coat—goat Voiceless — voiced opposition is simultaneously based on for-tis — lenis distinction. It is not so in the Russian language where the voiceless — voiced opposition is based only on the presence or absence of voice. If we compare the English /p, t, k, b, d, g/ and the Russian In, т, к, б, д, г/, we may state that: in the initial position the English /b, d, g/ are weakly voiced, the Russian /б, д, г/ are fully voiced: book — бук goose — гусь deem — Дима In English /p, t, k/ in the initial position are aspirated fort is, in Russian /п, т, к/ are unaspirated, therefore in English the /p — b, t — d, k — g/ oppositions are based on breath-force distinction, whereas in Russian, the pairs /n — б, т — д, к — г/ differ due to voice — absence of voice distinction (but not in the final position). in English (plead—bleed tip —dip come—gum peach—beach tea —Dee cot —got pat —bat tear—dear cane—gain 1 /a/ is a "facultative phoneme". Some authors prove its phonemic status in Russian пой—бой тал—дал кот—год пей—бей тол—дол кит—гид 2. Active Organ of Speech and the Place of Articulation This principle of consonant classification provides the basts for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Labial vs. lingual pain — cane bun — ton fame — tame In these pairs the labial bilabial /p/ is opposed to the lingual back-Hngual velar /k/; the labial bilabial /b/ is opposed to the lingual fore-lingual apical HI; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the lingual forelingual apical /t/. (2) Lingual vs. pharyngat (glottal) Tim — him this — hiss foam — home care — hair In these pairs the lingual forelingual apical /t/ is opposed to the pharyngal /hi; the lingual forelingual apical interdental 1Ы is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the lingual backlingual velar Ikl is opposed to the pharyngal /h/. Within the group of labial, bilabial may be opposed to labiodental. wear — fair mice — vice In these pairs the bilabial /w/ is opposed to the labio-dental HI; the bilabial /m/ is opposed to the labio-dental /v/. Within the group of forelingual, apical may be opposed to cacuminal. dim — rim In this pair the apical forelingual alveolar /d/ is opposed to the cacuminal forelingual alveolar /r/. Within the group of lingual, forelingual can be opposed to medio-lingual. tongue — young jet — yet In these pairs the forelingual (apical alveolar) /t/ is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) 1)1] the forelingual (apical palato-alveolar) l&$l is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) /j/. 3. Manner of the Production of Noise This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Occlusive (stops) vs. constictive pine—fine Bern—fern dare —share bat —that bore—thaw bee — thee care—there mine—t hine ca me—lame In these pairs the occlusive /p, b, d, k, ml are opposed to the constrictive /f, J1, S, 9, 1/. (2) Constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive (affricates) fare — chair fail — jail work — jerk In these pairs the constrictive /f, w/ are opposed to the occlusive-constrictive (affricates) /tf, dg/. "Within the groups of occlusives, or stops, and constrictives, noise consonants may be opposed to sonorants. (a) occlusive: noise vs. nasal somrants pine—mine boat — moat tale—nail dead—need kick—king In these pairs the occlusive noise /p, b, t, d, k/ are opposed to the nasal sonorants /m, n, rj/. (b) constrictive: noise vs. sonorants same — lame vain — lane then — when In these pairs the constrictive noise consonants /s, v, ö/ are opposed to the constrictive sonor ants /1, w/. Unicentral constrictive consonants may be opposed to bicentral consrictive consonants. (c) constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same — shame thine — wine In these pairs the constrictive unicentral /s, 5/ are opposed to the constrictive bicentral Ц, w/. Constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing can be opposed to constrictive consonants with a round narrowing. (d) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing fame — same vat — sat In these pairs the constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing /f, v/ are opposed to the constrictive consonants with a round narrowing /si. In all these oppositions only examples with the initially opposed consonant phonemes are given. It does not mean that the pairs of medially and finally opposed consonants, that prove their phonemic status, may not be found. Position of the Soft Palate This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions. Oral vs. nasal pit — pin seek — seen thieve — theme sick — sing 60 In these pairs the oral consonants It, k, v/ are opposed to the nasal /m, n, ту. The method of minimal pairs helps to identify 24 consonant phonemes in the English language on the basis of such an analysis which demands a recourse to the meaning, or to the distinctive function of the phoneme. V. A. Vassilyey г writes that those linguists who reject meaning as external to linguistics think that it is possible to "group the sounds of the language into phonemes even without knowing the meaning of words" as D. Jones put it. V. A. Vassilyev states thai "this belief I...] is based on two laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution (1) that allophones of different phonemes always occur in the same phonetic context I...] and (2) that consequently, the allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context and always occur in different positions [...]." From these laws "two conclusions are deduced: (1) if more or less different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they should be allophones of different phonemes; and (2) if more or less similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme [...]. This method is known in modern phonology as the purely distributional methodof identifying the phonemes of a language as items of its phonemic system." Though the practical application of the purely distributional method is theoretically feasible, there are many difficulties in its use. The principle which determines the choice of the most suitable method for teaching purposes is called the principle of pedagogical expedience in phonemic analysis. Questions 1. What is the definition of the phoneme from the viewpoint of distinctive oppositions? 2. What is the difference between minimal and sub-minimal pairs? 3. What features of the phoneme are distinctively relevant and distinctively irrelevant? 4. What is the nature of voiced — voiceless opposition in English and in Russian? 5. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of labial, lingual, and pharyngal consonant phonemes? 6. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the group of labial and lingual consonants? 7. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of occlusive (or stops), constructive, occlusiye-constrictive (or affricated) consonants? 8. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the groups of occlusive and con-strictive consonants? 9. What distinctive oppositions prove the existence of oral and nasal consonant phonemes? 10. What is the difference between the semantic and purely distributional methods of phonological analysis? Vassilyev V. A. Op. cit,—P. 160. Exercises *1. State what classificatory principles can be illustrated by the groups of pairs given below (consonants opposed initially). pin — bin, pack — back, pie — bye, tie — die pen — ten, been — dean pole — coal, bait — gait fee — we, fell — well fee — he sob — rob, seal — real, sole — role, sip ■— rip, sight — right pity—city, pay — say, pail — sail, pole — sole, peel — seal pine — mine, debt — net, kick — Nick fell — well, those — rose, soul — role, sip — rip, sight — right fell — well, fee — we fail — sail, fee — see, foot — soot, fat — sat, fell — sell 2/ Read the pairs of words. Pay attention to the presence of aspiration in /p, " t, k/ vs. its absence in /b, d, g/ rather than to voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis distinction.
/p—b/ pet —bet pig —big puts —boots pass —bus pack—back port—bought tear —dear tart —dart *3. What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions;phonologically relevant? (a) cap —cab sent —send pack —back ton —don caper —labour latter—ladder leak —league coal —goal decree—degree
(b) pee —fee tie —sigh do —zoo supper—suffer attend—ascend raider—razor leap —leak park —part rude —ruse (c) till —chill day —jay share —chair martyr—marcher murder—merger much —marsh eat —each lard —large furnisher—furniture (d) thigh—shy Ruth —ruche root —rouge (e) bad —mad dock—knock rigging—ringing *4. Read these pairs of words. State which of them represent minimal pairs thick —sick zest —lest daily —daisy bathed —base they —lay Weiler—weather thigh —shy genre —jar bathe —bail Control Tasks *1. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) labial vs. fore-lingual, (b) labial vs. mediolingual, (c) labial vs. backlinguai. pat —cat wield—yield man —nap supper—succour wail —Yale coming—cunning *2. State which of the pairs illustrate (a) forelingual vs. mediolingual and (b) forelingual vs. backlingual oppositions. tame —carae sinner—singer sung—young less —yes bitter—bicker bat —back rudder—rugger clue —cue day —gay drew —due bad —bag rung—young *3. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) occlusive vs. constrictfve, (b) constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive, (c) noise vs. so-norants, (d) unicentral vs. bicentral, <e) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing. pine —fine work —jerk vain —lane fare —chair bee —thee came—lame boat—moat deed—need fame—same seek —seen thine—wine sick —sing 4. State allophonic differences of the /t, k/ phonemes in the initial position due to the influence of the next vowel. \ W tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore, tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, tow, tear, tore /k/ key, kin, kept, cap, car, cot, core, cut, cork, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care *5. State allophonic differences of: Л, r, j/ after /p/ in: plan, price, pure; /r, j, w/ after /t/ in: try, tube, twelve; /I, r, j, w/ after /k/ in: clean, cream, cue, quite ENGLISH VOWELS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians can be illustrated by distinctive oppositions in the system of the following English vowel phonemes: /i:, i, e, se, a-, d, o:, u, u:, л, а:, зЛ 1. Position of the Lips Rounded vs. unrounded vowels: don — darn pot — part In these pairs the unrounded vowel phoneme hi is opposed to the rounded hi phoneme. 2. Position of the Tongue (1) Horizontal movement of the tongue (a) front vs. central cab—curb bed—bird %honeme^r (b) back vs. central pull—perl cart—curt call—curl (2) Vertical movement of 'the tongue (a) close (Ugh) vs. mid-open (mid) bid—bird put—port week—work Jomvo^i%t dose vowels llt u' lu/ are opposed t0 the (b) open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) lack—lurk bard—bird call—curl Xenvowei/3:/ to the h0lte?i Wilhin efch grouP which we stogle out according /i" РеГ0^/1Т!,8,паГ%3иЬ(!1у1аес1ШЬ1и][1У!го^ and front-retracted: Its' indSendent „hy 7nt-' {1;.аз а fr°nt-retracted vowel phoneme. of ÄfpaUheng!°S1CalstatuSCan be proved ЬУ the 6XistenCe Pete-pit deep-dip beet-bit and^ck-SrlLf / als? Evicted into fully back /u:, o:, W back-adväncS 2 ^' a/' The ^dependent phonological status о pairs, e™ V°Wels can be P^ved by the existence of minimal bard—bud cart—cut pool—pull els С1?ГтЫ^}1т1-й~<°т <or mid> as well as open (or low) yow-are subdivided into vowels of narrow and broad variation. 64 Thus, within the group of high vowels /1:, u:/ belong to the vowel phonemes of narrow variation, and /i, u/ belong to the vowel phonemes of broad variation. Their independent phonological status can be proved by the existence of such pairs as: Pete—pit pool—pull In these pairs /i:, u:/ are opposed to /i, u/, which belong to the subgroup of high vowels of broad variation. Within the group of mid-open (or mid) vowels /e, з:/ belong to the phonemes of narrow variation and /a/ belongs to the subgroup of mid vowels of broad variation. The independent phonological status of /e, з:, э/ can be proved by the existence of such pairs as: pence—sixpence foreword—forward /'pens/—/'sikspans/ /ifo:w3:d/—/if Open (or low) vowels are also subdivided into the phonemes of broad variation (/se, a/) and of narrow variation \ht). Their independent phonological status can be proved by the existence of minimal pairs: bad—bard knot—gnat 3. Degree of Tenseness and the Character of the End of the Vowel This principle of vowel classification together with the principle of length provide the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: Tense vs. lax Checked vs. free eel — ill steel—-still done—darn knit—need deed—did feet —fit come—calm fit —feed 4. Length There are long vowel phonemes in English /i:, а, о:, и:, э:/ and short /i, e, ae,1 л, и, и, э/. But the length of the vowels is.not the only distinctive feature of minimal pairs like: Pete—pit, beet — bit, Bart — bad, etc. In other words, the difference between /i:—i, ■а—л/, etc. is not only quantitative-------- 1 but also qualitative, which is condi-______ [ tioned by different positions of the bulk ■of the tongue. E.g. in the words bead—bid not only the length of the vowels /i:, i/ js different but in the /i:/ articulation the bulk of the tongue occupies a more front and high position, than in the articulation of A/. Qualitative difference is the main relevant feature that serves to differentiate long and short vowel phonemes because quantitative Some authors consider /a/ to be a long phoneme. 3—182 6> characteristics of long vowels depend on the position they occupy in a word:1 (a) they are the longest in the terminal position: bee, bar, coo, her, (b) they are shorter before voiced consonants: bead, bard, cool, term, (c) they are the shortest before voiceless consonants: beet, Bart, To observe the quantity, or length of vowels in different positions, it is advisable to do contrast exercises, e.g. bee — bead — beet bar — Bard — Bart car — card — cart 5. Stability of Articulation The principle provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Monophthongs vs. diphthongs bit—bait bid—beard dead—dared cot—coat In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ei, ia, еэ, эй/. kit—kite debt—doubt John—join In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ai, au, 01/. (2) Diphthongs vs. stable vowels bite—bee bait —beet boat—boot pail—pool lake—leek beard—bead raid—rude care—coo In these pairs the diphthongs /ai, ei, ю, эй, вэ/ are opposed to the jr., u:/. According to the movement of the tongue within the articulation of the diphthong from the nucleus to the glide, diphthongs are subdivided into closing and centring.
The method of minimal pairs helps to establish 20 vowel phonemes in the phonological system of English vowels: 12 monophthongs: /i, e, se, a, v, o:, u, л, з:, э, i:, u:/> 8 di phthongs: /ei, ai, oi, 1Э, вэ, иэ, аи, эй/. * There are other factors, that condition the quantitative difference of vowel phonemes (see p. 39). Questions 1. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups of rounded and unrounded vowels? 2. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups according to the (a) horizontal, (b) vertical movements of the tongue? 3. Can the existence of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels be proved by minimal pairs? 4. Is the length of the vowels the only distinctive feature of long (tense) and short (lax) vowel phonemes like /i:, i/, /u:, u/, etc.? 5. How is vowel length conditioned positionally? 6. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the classificatory principle of vowel stability in articulation? 7. How are diphthongs subdivided according to the tongue movement from the nucleus to the glide? Exercises *1. Read these pairs of words. State what principles of vowel classification they illustrate. (a) cod —cord (b) end —and (c) fir —for cot —caught hem —ham turn—torn body—border kettle—cattle bird —bord (d) fool —full (e) am —aim (f) nor —no pool —pull add —aid law —low food —put man—main called —cold tool —took lad —laid bald —bold boot—book fat —fate caught—coat 2. Read these words and state what movements of the tongue make the vowel phonemes /e, з:, л, a:, u, i, эе, ж/ different, bed—bird—bud—bard bid—bird—bud lack—lurk—luck—lark lid—led—lad hat—hurt—hut—heart big—beg—bag cab—curb—cub kit—curt—caught *3. Read these pairs of words. State: (a) what closing diphthongs are opposed in the pairs: hay—high laid—lied no—now known—noun bay—buy tape—type hoe—how phoned—found (b) what centring diphthongs are opposed in the pairs: here—hair ear —air rear—rare fear —fair beer—bear tear—tare *4. Read these words. Observe the allophonic difference of the /i:, ei, ж, з:/ phonemes conditioned by their positional length. bee—been—beet lay—laid—late dee—dean—deep may—maid—mate o* 67 knee—need—neat say—save—safe lee—league—leak tie—tide—tight core—cord—caught her—heard—hurl saw—sword—sought sir—serve—serf four—form—fork fur—furl—first bore—board—bought were—girl—purse *5. What classificatory principle of vowels can be illustrated by the contrastiver pairs given below? bid —beard pooh —poor too —tour at —out dead—dared ass —ice ate —eight ladder—lower pod —poured manner—minor letter—later mass —mouse Control Tasks *1, Which of the given examples illustrate (a) high, mid, open and (b) front, mixed, back oppositions? bead—bed—bad deed—dead—dad cab—curb—cub tan—turn—ton had—bird—bud hat—hurt—hut •2. Arrange these words into minimal distinctive pairs. cart, wart, Boz, caught, dor, wrat, bars, cod, card, down, cot, cord *2. Sort out these oppositions into two columns: (a) closing diphthong vs. closing diphthong, (b) centring diphthong vs. centring diphthong. known —noun beer—bear hay—high rear—rare phoned—found ear —air bay—buy no —now hear —hair tear — tear fear—fair hoe—how tape —type
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