Exercise 1. Transform into Passive Voice.

Передмова

Навчальний посібник призначений для студентів другого курсу фізичних та фізико-технічних факультетів, які вивчали англійську мову у школі та продовжують вивчати її у вищому навчальному закладі.

Мета посібника – розвинути у студентів навички читання та розуміння оригінальної літератури англійською мовою, письма, реферування й усного мовлення в об’ємі, який передбачає навчальна програма.

Навчальний посібник розрахований на 70 годин аудиторного часу та 30–35 годин самостійної роботи.

Всі наукові тексти було запозичено з оригінальної англійської та американської літератури й незначною мірою адаптовано. Тематика цих текстів відбиралась з урахуванням рівня знань, які студенти одержали у середній школі.

Навчальний посібник складається із трьох блоків, які можна використовувати як окремо, так і разом, що дозволить комбінувати види мовленнєвої діяльності. Перший блок представлений сімома уроками. Структура кожного уроку включає в себе граматичні правила (представлені у вигляді таблиць) і вправи для їх закріплення, передтекстові, текстові та післятекстові вправи. Якщо передтекстові вправи (мовні та мовленнєві) підводять студента до розуміння текстової інформації, то післятекстові вправи виконують такі функції: опанування лексико-граматичного матеріалу, застосування його в усному та письмовому мовленні та контроль навичок і вмінь читання й усного мовлення.

Друга частина направлена на розвиток навичок, які знадобляться майбутньому спеціалісту у професійній діальності, як-то написання резюме, ділової кореспонденції, анотацій і тез наукових робіт. Велика увага приділяється усному мовленню, зокрема на проходженя співбесіди під час влаштування на роботу.

Частина «Additional Reading» являє собою збірку оригінальних текстів за темами: «Прикладна фізика», «Фізика плазми», «Ядерна фізика», «Медична фізика» і може використовуватись як додаткові тексти для аналітичного читання і реферування.

Окремо у трьох додатках подані матеріали, які сприяють швидкому засвоєнню граматичного і лексичного матеріалу для роботи зі спеціальною літературою.

Під час роботи з навчальним посібником автори рекомендують проводити як індивідуальні, так і парні та групові види роботи, що сприяють розширенню мовленнєвого середовища, а також розвитку усного мовлення.

 

 

PART I. GENERAL COURSE

 

Unit 1

 

GRAMMAR: Passive Voice

TEXTS: “ Particles and Fields”; “Where Does the Thunder Come From?”

PASSIVE VOICE

to be + Participle II

	PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
SIMPLE	The letter is written. Books are read every day.	The letter was written. Books were read every day.	The letter (books) will be written tomorrow.
CONTINUOUS	The letter is being written now.     The books are being read now.	The letter was being written at three o’clock yesterday. The books were being read at three o’clock yesterday.	Не використо- вується
PERFECT	The letter has been written.     The books have been read.	The letter had been written by three o’clock yesterday. The books had been read by three o’clock yesterday.	The letter (books) will have been written by 3 o’clock tomorrow.
PERFECT CONTINUOUS	Не використо- вується	Не використо- вується	Не використо- вується

· У питальних реченнях перше допоміжне дієслово стоїть перед підметом:

Was the article written on Monday? When was it written?

 

· У заперечних реченнях заперечна частка not вживається після першого допоміжного дієслова:

The article was not (wasn’t) written on Monday.

· Passive Voiceвживається, як правило, з перехідними дієсловами, тобто дієсловами, що мають після себе додаток: to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to pay, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise. Ті дієслова, які мають прямі та непрямі додатки, можуть утворювати подвійні конструкції:

A very good job was offered to me.

I was offered a very good job.

· Якщо у додатка до дієслова є прийменник, то прийменник вживається наприкінці речення

The doctor was sent for.

This film is much spoken about.

· Дієслова to read, to sell, to wash, to clean, to peel, to break, to deform, to wear, to burn вживаються у формі активного стану, але мають значення пасивного стану:

This dress washes and wears well and doesn’t crease.

Love stories sell well. Dry leaves burn well.

 

· Дієслова to have, to chance, to happen, to seem, to appear, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble не вживаються в пасивному стані, оскільки вони означають не дію або процес, а стан особи або предмета:

John resembles his father.

He has become a real professional.

· З пасивними конструкціями часто вживаються з прийменниками of, from, with, by:

I was interrupted by a loud knock on the door.

My country house is made of wood.

This pie is made from eggs, milk and flour.

Particles and Fields

The number of the particles of each type in the present universe is the result of a complicated history. Most of the particle types that were abundant in the early universe have long ago disappeared. We only observe them when they are produced briefly in laboratories, and then annihilate or decay. Because of this we are uncertain of how many particle types may exist.

In the present universe, quarks and electrons have properties that allow them to form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos cannot do this, and so exist much more diffusely throughout the universe.

Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons, and the present picture we have of the world is largely an expression of the properties of these particles. Of the two, quarks have a greater tendency to cluster together. Indeed, this tendency is so pronounced that quarks are believed to be never found in isolation, but only in combinations containing either three quarks or one quark and one antiquark. These are the combinations that make up most of the subatomic particles that are observed, such as protons and neutrons, the particles found in the nuclei of atoms.

The reasons why quarks insist on clustering in this way are not completely understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) that attempts to describe how quarks behave. QCD involves the interactions of fields associated with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called gluons (so named because they bind the quarks together). Most physicists believe that when the predictions of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks cluster as they do.

Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have been bound together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other combinations of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are unstable under present conditions. That is, if they are produced, they change spontaneously into less massive particles, and eventually into some combination of the stable ones. Even neutrons are unstable when they are found in isolation– as when they arc produced in nuclear reactors– and decay into protons in a few minutes. The reason that neutrons exist at all in the present universe is that when given the chance they bind together into more complex and lasting objects. Neutrons can bind with protons into atomic nuclei, and with one another in immense numbers into neutron stars.

 

Unit 2

 

GRAMMAR: Modals

TEXTS: “Physics Lab Safety Rules”; “Our Place in the Universe”

MODAL VERBS

Present	Past	Future
can (фізична можливість, можливість, дозвіл, вирогідність) I can translate this text easily. Can you pass the salt, please? to be able to (здатний) He is a great sportsman, he is able to swim over the English Channel.	could (можливість дії, менша вірогідність у порівнянні із can) They could miss the train but fortunately they were on time at the station.   was / were able to (можливість, здатність) The child was not able to read the book, he was too small.	‑   will be able to (можливість, здатність) As soon as you finish the work, you will be able to go out.
must (повинен, моральне зобов’язання) People must take care about their old parents. to have to (вимушений, повинен за обставинами) We have to work under awful conditions. to be to (повинен згідно з попереднім планом, домовленості) Students are to take exams at the end of the term. What am I to do?	‑   had to He had to carry out experiments without anyone’s assistance.   was / were to My neighbour was away and I was to feed his cat and water the flowers.	‑   will have to We will have to translate the article. Nobody will do it for us.   ‑
may (дозвіл, вірогідність) The work has been done. You may be free.     to be allowed to (дозвіл) You are not allowed to leave your place without permission.	might (вірогідність менша у порівнянні із may) They might be there but I’m not sure. was / were allowed to (дозвіл) There were not allowed to go to the party.	‑     will be allowed to (дозвіл) You will be allowed to go out if you tidy up everywhere.
should (слід, порада, рекомендація) You should wear safety glasses in the laboratory.
ought to (слід, використовується як синонім should) You ought to revise for your test.
need (використовується у заперечній формі із значенням відсутність необхідності) He didn’t need to take a taxi as I gave him a lift.
Would (1) звичайна дія у минулому, що повторювалася, синонімічно до used to; 2) сильне небажання виконувати якусь дію; 3. властива дія (у технічних текстах) He would go to the country every summer in his childhood. I asked him to do it but he wouldn’t. Paper would burn well.

 

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with "to have to", "to be to", "must" according to the meaning.

1. The experiment... take place on Monday, I think everything is ready.
2. They... examine this sample under a very powerful microscope as it is very small: 3. I am very tired, I... have a rest. 4. Our meeting... take place after our last lecture. 5. You... work hard if you want to finish this work. 6. I.... go to the reading-room as I have no books at home. 7. He... wait for two hours as his train has just left. 8. All the students of our Institute... carry out a number of experiments in the laboratory.

 

Study the following words

assign (v) – давати, доручати, розподіляти

assignment (n) – завдання

distract (v) – відволікати; distract the attention (mind)

extinguisher (n) – вогнегасник

first-aid kit – аптечка; засоби для першої медичної допомоги

grasp (v) – хватати; затискати у руках

injure (v) ‑ поранити

label (n) – етикетка, наклейка, бирка

malfunction (v, n) – неправильно працювати; несправна робота

minor (adj) – незначний; другорядний

plug (n) – штепсельна виделка

set up (v) – встановлювати; підготувати

smother (v) – гасити, ліквідувати

tongs (n) – щипці

unattended (adj) – залишений без нагляду

 

TEXT 1

 

Physics Lab Safety Rules

Lab safety is everyone’s responsibility! Here are some safety rules to guide you.

1. The physics laboratory is to be used for serious work. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are dangerous and prohibited. Always follow your teacher’s instructions.

2. Study your lab assignment carefully before starting the lab. If you are in doubt about any procedure, ask your teacher for help. Pay particular attention to any cautions.

3. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use. Set up and use the prescribed apparatus as directed in the laboratory instructions or by your teacher.

4. Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. You will be assigned a laboratory station at which to work. Do not wander around the room, distract other students, or interfere with the laboratory experiments of others.

5. Students are never permitted in the science storage rooms or preparation areas unless given specific permission by their instructor.

6. Do not attempt unauthorized experiments. Always obtain your teacher's permission before beginning an activity. Students are never permitted in the lab unattended.

7. Notify the teacher immediately in case of accident or injury, no matter how minor. Report any incorrect procedure. Report any equipment that you suspect is malfunctioning.

8. Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewellry, and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back and dangling jewellry and loose or baggy clothing must be secured. Remove neckties. Shoes must completely cover the foot. No sandals allowed.

9. If you have a medical condition (e.g., allergies), check with your physician prior to working in the lab.

10. Keep work areas and the floor around you clean, dry, and free of clutter. Keep lab benches free of nonessential materials.

11. Use the safety equipment provided for you. Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eyewash station, and first-aid kit.

12. When using knives and other sharp instruments, always carry with tips and points pointing down and away. Always cut away from your body. Never try to catch falling sharp instruments. Grasp sharp instruments only by the handles.

13. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. Use a brush and dustpan to clean up broken glass. Place broken or waste glassware in the designated glass disposal container.

14. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. Keep all materials away from open flames. If a fire should break out in the lab, or if your clothing should catch fire, smother it with a blanket or coat or use a fire extinguisher. NEVER RUN.

15. Exercise extreme caution when using a gas burner. Take care that hair, clothing and hands are a safe distance from the flame at all times. Do not put any substance into the flame unless specifically instructed to do so. Never reach over an exposed flame. Light gas (or alcohol) burners only as instructed by the teacher.

16. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or is visibly reacting unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not in use.

17. Heated metals and glass remain very hot for a long time. They should be set aside to cool and picked up with caution. Use tongs or heat-protective gloves if necessary.

18. Do not place hot apparatus directly on the laboratory desk. Always use an insulating pad. Allow plenty of time for hot apparatus to cool before touching it.

19. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a laboratory period; containers must be closed, gas valves turned off, and any electrical equipment turned off.

20. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not the electrical cord. Hands must be completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or outlet. Do not handle electric equipment when you are standing in damp areas.

21. Use electrical equipment only under the supervision of your teacher. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things such as frayed cords, exposed wires, and loose connections. Do not use damaged electrical equipment.

22. Do not eat or chew gum. Never bring food, beverages, or make-up into the laboratory. Never taste anything in the laboratory. Never remove lab glassware from the laboratory, and never use this glassware for eating or drinking.

23. When your investigation is completed, clean your work area, and return all materials and apparatus to their proper places. Disconnect electrical connections (if any). Leave your lab area as cleaner (or cleaner!) than you found it.

 

Our Place in the Universe

In our everyday life we encounter objects of widely differing sizes. Some of them are as large as a barn and others are as small as a pinhead. When we go beyond those limits, either in the direction of much lager objects or in the direction of much smaller ones, it becomes increasingly difficult to grasp their actual sizes. We know that mountains are very large, but at a distance they look quite small. While at a short range we can see but a few rocks and cliffs. We know that bacteria are very small, but to see them we have to use a microscope, through which they look quite big.

Objects that are much larger than mountains, such as our Earth itself, the moon, the sun, the stars, and stellar systems, constitute what we know as a macrocosm (i.e., “large world” in Greek). Very small objects such as bacteria, atoms, and electrons belong to the microcosm (i.e. “small world” in Greek). If we use the standard scientific unit, a centimeter (0.3937 inch), for measuring sizes, objects belonging to the macrocosm will be described by very large numbers, and those forming the microcosm by very small ones. Thus, the diameter of the sun is 139,000,000,000 cm, while the diameter of a hydrogen atom is only 0.0000000106 cm. Scientists customary express such numbers in terms of positive and negative powers of ten, and write 1.39 x 10¹¹ cm for the diameter of the sun and 1.06x10^{-8 cm for the diameter of a hydrogen atom. Sometimes special very large or very small units are used. Thus, in the macrocosm we use the so-called astronomical unit (symbol: A.U.), which is defined as the mean distance of the earth from the sun and is equal to 1.4964 x 1013 cm, or a still larger unit known as a light-year (symbol: l.y.) which is defined as the distance traveled by the light in the course of one year and is equal to 9.463 x 1017 cm. In the microcosm we often use microns (symbol: m), defined as 10-4 cm, and Angstroms (symbol: A), defined as 10-8 cm.}

It is interesting to notice that the size of the human head is just about halfway between the size of an atom and the size of the sun, or halfway between the size of an atomic nucleus and the diameter of the planetary system (on the logarithmic scale in both cases, of course).

Similar vast variations will be found in the time intervals encountered in the study of the macrocosm and microcosm. In human history we ordinary speak about centuries; in geology the eras are usually measured in hundreds of millions of years, while the age of the Universe itself is believed to be about 10-20 billion years. The revolution period of an electron in the hydrogen atom, on the other hand, is 10^-15 sec, and the oscillations of particles constituting atomic nuclei have a period of only 10^-22 sec. Notice that the wink of an eye is just halfway between the age of our stellar system and the rotation period of an electron in an atom. Thus, it seems that we are located pretty well in the middle between the macro- and microcosm and can look up at the stars and down at the atoms with an equal degree of infer- and superiority.

 

UNIT 3

GRAMMAR: Subjunctive Mood. Conditionals.

TEXTX: “Properties of light”; “ The Atomic Structure of Matter”

CONDITIONALS

Conditional – 0 – умовний спосіб, використовується для опису загальновідомих фактів (зазвичай наукових)

If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.

Conditional – 1 – Умова – реальна, відноситься до теперішнього та майбутнього часів. Вживається будь-який час, що вимагається за змістом.

If you enter this department, you will not feel sorry.

Ring me up if you want to know the news.

Conditional – 2 – Умова – малоймовірна або неймовірна. Відноситься до теперішнього та майбутнього часів.

Smb. would do smth, if smb. did / were smth

He would come if he were free.

He would take part in this work if he were not so busy.

He could answer the question if you helped him.

Conditional – 3 – Умова – неймовірна. Відноситься до минулого часу.

Smb. would have done/ been smth. if smb. had done / been smth.

They would have passed the exams successfully if they had studied well.

He would have come yesterday if he had been free.

 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

1. Should smb do / have done smth + будь-яка видо-часова форма.

Should you come to the meeting, note everything you can.

Should you have prepared for the exam better, you would have got an excellent mark.

2. It is (high) time smb did / would do smth

It’s high time you pulled yourself together and start working. – Зараз час тобі зібратися і почати працювати.

It’ s time the students returned from the break. – Саме час, щоб студенти повернулися з перерви.

3. Smb wish smb did, were / had done smth.

I wish I had known everything beforehand. – Нажаль, я не дізнався про це раніше.

I wish you were not so absent-minded. – Шкода, що ти такий неуважний.

Зверніть увагу, що під час перекладу такого типу речень, стверджувальне речення на англійській мові стає негативним в українській і навпаки.

4. as if / as though smb did / had done smth

The object behaves as if it were given some energy at the start. – Тіло має такі властивості, ніби з самого початку йому було надано певну енергію.

He treats us as though he had been offended by some of us. – Він поводиться з нами так, ніби хтось з нас його образив.

5. so that / in order that (для того, щоб) / lest (щоб не) smb should do smth

Keep the temperature so that the substance should not be cooled. – Підтримуйте температуру на такому рівні, щоб речовина не охолола.

Study this material properly lest you should make mistakes. – Вивчіть цей матеріал добре, щоб не наробити помилок.

 

Study the following words

arrangement (n) – домовленість, розміщення, класифікація; arrangement by numbers

cast (v) – кидати, направляти; to cast an eye – кидати погляд

emanate (v) – випромінювати; бути результатом чогось

incandescent (adj) – розпечений, яскравий, той, що світиться

inverted (adj) – перевернутий, повернутий у зворотному напрямку

pinhole (n) – точений отвір (наприклад, діафрагми)

propagation (n) – відтворення, походження (сигналу)

radiate (v) – випромінювати

realm (n) – сфера, галузь

rectilinear (adj) ‑ прямолінійний

 

Properties of Light

Light and its various phenomena present some of the most interesting studies in the whole realm of physics. They are interesting because the results of many experiments are revealed through the sense of vision as colour phenomena. Equally important and every bit as interesting is the historical development and the discovery of the various principles, concepts, and properties of light which give rise to this phenomena.

All of the various known properties of light are conveniently described in terms of the experiments by which they were discovered and the many and varied experiments by which they are now continually demonstrated. Numerous as they are, these experiments may by grouped together and classified under one of the three following heads: 1) geometrical optics, 2) physical optics, and 3) quantum optics. Each of these may be subdivided as follows: geometrical optics: rectilinear propagation, finite velocity, reflection, refraction; physical optics: diffraction, interference, polarization, double refraction; quantum optics: photoelectric effect, Compton effect, atomic excitation, pair production.

The rectilinear propagation of light is another way of saying that “light travels in straight lines”. The fact that objects may be made to cast fairly sharp shadows is an experimental demonstration of this principle. Another illustration is the image formation of an object which is produced by light passing through a small opening. An object can be ordinary incandescent light bulb. In order to see how an image is formed, consider the rays of light emanating from a single point a near the top of the bulb. Of the many rays of light radiating in all directions, the ray that travels in the direction of the hole passes through the point a' near the bottom of the image screen. Similarly, a ray leaving b near the bottom of the bulb and passing through the hole will arrive at b' near the top of the image screen. Thus, it may be seen that an inverted image is formed.

If the image screen is moved closer to the pinhole screen, the image will be proportionately smaller, whereas if it were moved farther away the image would be proportionately larger. The same thing happens when either the object or the pinhole is moved. Excellent photographs can be made with this arrangement by making a pinhole in one end of a small box a placing a photographic film or plate at the other. Such an arrangement is called a pinhole camera. For good, sharp photographs the hole must be very small, because its size determines the amount of blurring produced.

 

Exercise 19. Grammar test.

1. I wish you would have called.

a. You called.

b. You didn’t call.

2. If I have money, I buy English books.

a. I always do it.

b. I do this when I have money.

3. If she had studied for her test, I’m sure she would have done quite well.

a. She didn’t study.

b. She studied.

4. If Mary had been at the office, she would have helped you.

a. Mary helped you.

b. Mary didn’t help you.

5. You could have got a higher score.

a. You didn’t get a high score because you didn’t study.

b. You got a high score because you studied.

6. They could have finished the project on time.

a. They had the ability to be quicker.

b. They finished the project on time.

7. Let’s pretend that we have this opportunity.

a. We have the opportunity.

b. We don’t have the opportunity.

8. I wish you had come back.

a. You did not come.

b. You came.

9. If you had done your homework, you would have got an excellent mark.

a. You didn’t get an excellent mark because you didn’t do your homework.

b. You did your homework, and so you got an excellent mark.

10.  You could have taken a friend to the party.

a. You came alone.

b. You came with a friend.

11.  I wish that you liked the meeting.

a. You didn’t like the meeting.

b. There is a possibility that you like the meeting.

12.  I hope that you enjoyed the party.

a. You didn’t enjoy the party.

b. There is actually possibility that you liked the party.

 

UNIT 4

 

GRAMMAR: Participle I

TEXTS: “Laser”; “ Cutting through a myth about modern lasers”

 

PARTICIPLE I

 

Forms of the Participle I

	Active	Passive
Non-Perfect	doing	being done
Perfect	having done	having been done

 

1. Participle Non-Perfect Active як частина присудка.	The students were listening to the lecturer with attention.	Студенти уважно слухали викладача.
2. Означення (займає місце як перед, так і після означуваного слова)	The smoking man was asked to leave the room. Everything depends on the proportion of the two substances being distilled. They were looking for a scientist having written that report. We take into account forms of energy having been discussed above.	Чоловіка, що палив, попросили вийти з кімнати. Все залежить від пропорції двох речовин, які зараз очищаються. Вони шукали вченого, який написав цю доповідь. Ми враховуємо форми енергії, що були описані раніше.
3. Обставина часу, способу дії	Having finished writing the test, the students can go home. Having a habit to oversleep, he is always late for his classes. Being discussed by many scientific teams, the problems tends to be very challenging. Having been warmed to 0° (zero) ice began to melt.	Після того, як студенти закінчать писати тест, вони зможуть піти додому. Оскільки він має звичку пізно прокидатись, він завжди запізнюється на заняття. Оскільки ця проблема обговорюється багатьма науковими спільнотами, вона є дуже перспективною. Після того, як лід було нагріто до 0 °, він почав танути.

 

Study the following words

amplification – посилення; поширення, доповнення

appliance – електричний пристрій (побутовий)

heating appliance – нагрівальний електропристрій

stationary appliance – стаціонарний електропристрій

continuously – постійно, безперервно

conventional – звичайний, загальноприйнятий, умовний

set of conventional signs – система умовних позначень

convert (v) – трансформувати, перетворювати

to convert data – перетворювати дані

gain (v) – отримувати

to gain experience (knowledge) – отримувати досвід (знання)

junction – контакт, місце з’єднання, перехід, стик

laser – лазер, квантовий посилювач

notable – помітний, значущий; Syn. remarkable, great

patent (v) – патентувати, брати патент (на що-небудь)

semiconductor – напівпровідник; Syn. transistor, semi-conductor

simultaneously – разом, одночасно; Syn. together, at the same time

variety – численність, вид, різновид; a variety of shapes – багаточисленність форм

 

Laser

The laser period opens with the achievement of the ruby laser. The acronym l.a.s.e.r. stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

Physicist Theodore Harold Maiman invented the first operable laser. While employed at Hughes Research Laboratories as a section head in 1960, he developed, demonstrated, and patented a laser using a pink ruby medium, for which he gained worldwide recognition. Born in Los Angeles, California, Maiman, in his teens earned college money by repairing electrical appliances and radios. He attended the University of Colorado and received a B.S.* in engineering physics in 1949, then went on to do graduate work at Stanford University, where he received an M.S.* in electrical engineering in 1951 and a Ph.D.* in physics in 1955. In 1962 Maiman founded his own company, Korad Corporation, devoted to the research, development, and manufacture of lasers.

Early in 1961 the first continuously operating laser was announced by Ali Javan and coworkers at Bell Laboratories. This laser was the first to use a gas, a mixture of helium and neon, for the light emitting material. At the same years scientists from American Optical Company made the first neodymium-doped glass laser. In 1962 scientists at General Electric and International Business Machines (IBM) almost simultaneously demonstrated the first semiconductor junction laser.

In 1962 Basov and Oraevskii proposed that rapid cooling could produce population inversions in molecular systems. And in 1966, the first gas-dynamic laser was successfully operated at the Avco Everett Research Lab. Many new laser types were discovered, most notable among these are the semiconductor lasers. In these lasers electrical energy is converted directly into highly monochromatic radiation.

The 1970s years became the time of discovery of a free electron laser. Laser applications have also increased in variety. Clearly, most optical experiments can be done at least as well with lasers as with conventional light sources and many can be done much better. Experiments requiring really high intensities in narrow spectral regions can only be made with lasers. Outside the field of scientific experimentation many applications were found in medicine, communications, geophysical and space exploration, military and metals technology. The potential importance of these applications continues to stimulate new developments in the laser field.

The 1964 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Charles Townes and to the Russian scientists Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle.

References

*B.S. (B. Sc.) – Bachelor of Science; the first university undergraduate degree

*M.S. (M. Sc.) – Master of Science; the first university graduate degree

*Ph.D. – Doctor of Philosophy; a high rank university degree granted for some

research

*in his teens – when he was between 13 and 19 years old

 

UNIT 5

 

GRAMMAR: Participle II; Absolute Participle Construction

TEXTS: “Maser”; “ Fun Facts about Lasers”

 

Participle II

 

Forms of the Participle II

1. Частина присудка	This device was constructed in 1954. They will have finished their report by Friday. This work should be done immediately.
2. Означення (може займати місце як перед, так і після означуваного слова)	The heated object became red-hot. The article cited can be found in previous issue of the journal.
3. Частина складного означення (перекладається як підрядне означальне речення)	Theoretical research followed by experiments is the base of any thesis.
4. Обставина часу, способу дії (приєднується за допомогою сполучників: when ‑ коли; if ‑ якщо; unless – якщо … не; until – поки … не; though – хоча)	When boiled to 100 ^oC, water starts evaporating. If broken, glass should be swept away carefully. Unless heated the substance doesn’t melt. Until finished, the work must not be shown to anybody. Though started in time, the work is still not finished.

 

Study the following words

amplifier (n) – підсилювач

instrument amplifier – вимірювальний посилювач

appoint (v) – призначити (час або місце), затверджувати на посаді, доручати (завдання)

by means of – за допомогою

cavity (n) – порожнина

concept (n) – поняття, ідея; загальне уявлення; концепція

in concept ‑ принципово

conversion (n) – перехід, перетворення, зміна, трансформація

on conversion to – при перерахунку у

conversion to a magnet – намагнічування

emission (n) – випромінювання, вихід, виділення

frequency band of emission – полоса частот випромінювання

heat emission – тепловіддача, виділення тепла

extend (v) – поширювати(-ся), простягати(-ся)

to extend to include – поширюватися на...

generator (n) – генератор

constant-current generator, direct-current generator – генератор постійного струму

alternating current generator – генератор змінного струму

microwave (n, adj) – ім. НВЧ-хвиля, прик. надвисокочастотний, мікрохвильовий

oscillator (n) – генератор коливань

oscillator is set up as – генератор побудований за схемою…

pertain (v) to – мати відношення до, відноситись, належати до

recognition (n) – визнання, розпізнання, розрізнення; speech recognition – розпізнання мовлення

recognize (v) – визнавати, розрізнювати

vicinity (n) – близькість

in the vicinity of – близько, приблизно

immediate vicinity – безпосередня близкість

 

Maser

The devices known as masers and lasers serve as amplifiers and generators of radiation. Their common characteristic is that they make use of the conversion of atomic or molecular energy to electromagnetic radiation by means of the process known as stimulated emission of radiation. When the wavelength of the emitted radiation is in the vicinity of 1 cm we speak of microwave amplifiers or masers. Instruments which generate or amplify visible or nearly visible radiation are called optical masers or lasers.

The history of the invention or the evolution of these devices may be divided into the following periods.

The relevant phase of the premaser period started with the discovery of the existence of the stimulated emission process and ended with the recognition by many physicists of the possibility that this process might lead to a radiation amplifier. This period extends from 1916 to 1953. In 1917, it was Albert Einstein who was the first to recognize the existence of stimulated emission, but not until the 1950s when the first device was demonstrated.

The maser period begins with the publication of an article by Basov and Prokhorov and the construction of the first operating maser by Townes, Gordon, Zeiger. Basov and Prokhorov gave a detailed theoretical exploration of the use of molecular beams in microwave spectr o scopy. The article of Basov and Prokhorov contained detailed calculations pertaining to the role of the relevant physical parameters, the effects of line-width, cavity dimensions, and the like. Thus the quantitative conditions for the operation of a microwave amplifier and generator were found.

In 1954 at Columbia University Charles Townes and two of his students announced the construction and operation of a device that may be used as a high resolution microwave spectrometer, a microwave amplifier, or a very stable oscillator. They named the device a “maser” – an acronym for microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

From 1958 on, many masers were constructed for applications in radio astronomy and as components of radar receivers. These masers were mostly of the ruby type. Their design became a part of the engineering art and research interest turned toward the extension of stimulated emission techniques in the visible and infrared regions. Arthur Schawlow of Bell Laboratories and Townes proposed extending the maser concept to the optical frequency range in 1958. Born in Greenville, South Carolina, Townes joined the technical staff of Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc. and worked on radar bombing systems during World War II. In 1948 he joined the faculty of Columbia University and three years later had the idea that resulted in the construction of the maser. From 1959 to 1961 Townes served as a vice president and a director of research of the Institute for Defense Analysis in Washington, D.C. He then was appointed the professor of physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The maser period extends from 1954 to 1960.

 

Fun Facts about Lasers

Read the text and fill in gaps (1 ‑ 10) with the correct variant (A, B, C or D).

What kids haven’t played with lasers? We have all loved the laser fights in movies like Star Wars. Who wouldn’t want wield a laser around while fighting an enemy. Did you know that the term laser came from an acronym meaning “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.”? It should actually be all capitalized but for _______ (1) it isn’t.

The first working laser was actually _______ (2) by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories back in 1960.

The strength of early lasers was measured in Gillette’s. This was the number of blue razor blades a beam could puncture.

There are many types of lasers found in everything from electronics to medical items. In the 60’s they were only seen as a solution for a _______ (3)!

Some lasers are gas, chemical, solid state, dye and stimulated electron lasers.

Lasers we come across today _______ (4) at a low level of power. Lasers in CD-ROMs drives will be around 5mW, DVD players around 5‑10mW, recordable CD drives ‑ 100mW.

The most ________ (5) laser recorded was at 1.25 petawatts in a laboratory in California in 1996.

Lasers actually are grouped into classes for levels of _______ (6). Class 1‑5. If you reach 5 it can mean permanent blindness and burning skin!

You may have thought that lasers are _______ (7) but they aren’t. So for a thief to try to get around them would be impossible!

Lasers could not be seen in space either because they have no matter. The matter causes the scattering effect which would give the appearance of a light beam.

Scientists are working on a laser to draw lightning strikes away from airports and power plants.

Cold lasers are used for acupuncture instead of needles.

There is a new laser that can detect cancer and diabetes called the “breathalyzer.”

Lasers are used to destroy and kill tumours.

Lasers are used to remove _______ (8).

They are used in eye surgeries and _______ (9) removals.

There is a laser technology called Clear Scan that can rid you of spider veins, vascular lesions and skin discolorations.

The world’s most powerful laser can have the power of a hydrogen
_______ (10)! That is amazing!

 

1.	a. hardness	b. simplicity	c. easy	d. fun
2.	a. demonstrated	b. fixed	c. demonstrating	d. seen
3.	a. issue	b. problem	c. question	d. task
4.	a. conduct	b. monitor	c. do	d. operate
5.	a. powerful	b. strong	c. heavy	d. easy
6.	a. danger	b. color	c. sound	d. difficulty
7.	a. watched	b. looked	c. visible	d. clear
8.	a. fingers	b. ears	c. hair	d. smell
9.	a. lipstick	b. mascara	c. nail polish	d. tattoo
10.	a. atom	b. bomb	c. isotope	d. atmosphere

 

UNIT 6

 

GRAMMAR: Gerund

TEXTS: “ The W orld Is Made of Subatomic Particles ”; “The Big Bang Theory”

 

GERUND

 

Forms of the Gerund

	Active	Passive
Non-Perfect	doing being studying	being done being studied
Perfect	having done having been having studied	having been done having been studied

Безособова форма дієслова, що має риси як іменника, так і дієслова. У порівнянні з іменником герундій характеризує:

1. відсутність артикля;

2. наявність присвійного займенника (th ei r studying, her reading);

3. наявність вказівних займенників (this reading, this thinking);

4. наявність присвійного відмінка (my frie n d’ s studying, the students’ writing);

5. відсутність множини;

6. можливість застосування із прийменниками (b efore re a ding, after finishing);

у порівнянні із дієсловом:

1. частково наявність видо-часових форм (для одномоментності дії – Non-Perfect, для дії, що була раніше – Perfect);

2. наявність активного і пасивного станів;

3. відсутність особових закінчень.

NB – заперечна частка NOT ставиться безпосередньо перед герундіальною конструкцією.

1. П ідмет	R eading books is useful Being told lies is very offensive. Not having told them the news was our mistake. His having been elected the dean was a surprise for everybody.	Читати книжки корисно. Коли тобі говорять неправду, це дуже образливо. Те, що ми не розповіли їм новини, було нашою помилкою. Те, що його було обрано деканом, здивувало всіх.
2. Означення використовується у фразах типу: to have the opportunity (a chance) of…; to have an idea (an experience) in …; the way of…	She has no chance of passing the exam. They don’t have any experience in carrying out such experiments. Let me do it. I know the way of doing it quickly. They have no idea of the documents having been stolen.	У неї немає шансів скласти цей іспит. У них немає досвіду, як проводити такі експерименти. Давай я все зроблю. Я знаю, як це зробити швидко. Вони не мають уявлення, що документи були викрадені.
3. Додаток * простий (1 особа і дві або більше дій)  I like reading. складний (2 або більше особи і дві або більше дії) I like your reading.	Doyourememberhaving been asked to translate that article? Iam tired of doing the same job all the time. Wouldyoumindmyclosing the window? Idoubttheirlistening to the lecture.	Ви пам’ ятаєте, що вас просили перекласти ту стат т ю? Я втомився виконувати одну й ту саму роботу весь час. Ви не будете заперечувати, якщо я зачиню вікно? Я маю сумніви, що вони слухають лекцію.
4. Обставина мети (for) часу (after, before, instead of, in spite of, on, besides)	He went to Kyiv for studying. For understanding this rule, you should listen to your teacher attentively. After teacher’s coming the lesson began. On his finishing the article he sent it to the journal. In spite of getting bad marks, he doesn’t want to lea r n anything.	Він поїхав до Києва навчатися. Щоб зрозуміти це правило, ви повинні уважно слухати викладача. Після того, як викладач прийшов, почалося заняття. Після того, як він закінчив статтю, він відіслав її до журналу. Незважаючи на те, що він отримує погані оцінки, він не хоче нічого вчити.

* у якості прийменникового (складного) додатка герудній вживається у таких конструкціях: to rely on, to insist on, to object to, to agree to, have / has heard of, have / has read of, have / has thought of, to be fond of, to be sure of, to be sorry about, to be happy about, to be (dis)pleased with / at, to be surprised at, to wonder at.

NB – герундій завжди вживається після таких дієслів: to enjoy, to avoid, to consider, to appreciate, to forgive, to postpone, to put off, to finish, to stop, to quit, to suggest, to admit, to deny, to go on, to keep on.

 

Study the following words

alteration (n) – зміна, перетворення, деформація

major / minor alteration – радикальна / незначна заміна

Big Bang – Великий Вибух (космологічний термін, одна із теорій виникнення світу)

changeless (adj) – незмінний, постійний, сталий

dozen (n) – дюжина (usually 12)

long dozen – чортова дюжина (13)

decimal dozen – десяток (10)

driving force – рушійна сила

duplicate (v) – повторювати, копіювати; збільшувати у два рази

expansion (n) – поширення, експансія; простір

expansion by heat – розширення під вас нагрівання

fairly (adv) – достатньо, явно; Syn. rather, quite

identical (adj) – однаковий, ідентичний, тотожний

illusion (n) – обман ілюзія

to create (produce) an illusion – створювати ілюзію

optical illusion – оптична ілюзія

involve (v) – включати в себе; стосуватися; залучати (до роботи)

lifetime (n) – тривалість життя; період напіврозпаду

make up (v) – збирати, створювати; компенсувати (час); видумувати;

manifestation (n) – уособлення; прояв; демонстрація

momentarily (adv) – миттєво; щохвилини

momentous (adj) – той, що має велике значення; Syn. significant

range (n) – ряд; зона розповсюдження; інтервал; діапазон; амплітуда

within range of – у радіусі дії

stability (n) – стабільність, стійкість;

variability (n) – мінливість