The Legal Heritage of Greece and Rome

The ancient Greeks were among the first to develop a concept of law that separated everyday laws and religious beliefs. Before Greeks most civilizations attributed their laws to gods and goddesses. Instead, the Greeks believed that laws were made by the people and for the people. In the seventh century B.C., Draco drew up Greece’s first written code of laws. Draco’s laws were shockingly severe, so severe that people say that they were written not in ink but in blood. On the civil side they permitted enslavement for debt, and death was the penalty for almost all criminal offences. Thus, the term draconian usually applies to extremely harsh measures.

Several decades passed before Solon – poet, military hero, and ultimately Athens’s lawgiver – devised a new code of laws. The early 6^th century was a troubled time for the Athenians. The aristocracy of birth owned the best land, and they were themselves split into rival factions. The social, economic and political evils might have culminated in a revolution and subsequent tyranny (dictatorship), had it not been for Solon, to whom Athenians turned in the hope of generally satisfactory solution of their problems. Because he believed in moderation and in an ordered society in which each class had its proper place and function, his solution was not revolution but reform. He retained trial by jury, an ancient Greek tradition, but prohibited enslavement of debtors. Under Solon’s law citizens of Athens were eligible to serve in the Assembly, and courts were established in which they could appeal government decisions. Solon revised every statute except that on homicide and made Athenian law altogether more humane. What the Greeks contributed to the Roman law was the concept of ‘natural law’. In essence, natural law was based on the belief that certain basic principle are above the laws of nature. These principles arise from the nature of people. The concept had a profound effect on the modern world.

Another earliest code of laws, the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was written between 451 B.C. and 449 B.C. The Law was carved into twelve bronze tablets set up in the Forum for everyone to see. It remained in use for over 1000 years. The second great set of Roman laws, the Justinian Code was compiled under the direction of Justinian, Emperor of Rome. Justinian was concerned with elimination of corruption and making justice available to everyone. The Code consisted of four works: a) all the imperial edicts; b) the Digest, the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) the Institutes, which served as a hand-book for law students; d) the Novels, or ‘new laws’, passed by Justinian himself.

By 100 A. D., the Roman Empire had spread over much of Europe. It remained intact until the fifth century A.D. As a result, the two Roman codes greatly influenced the laws of all European countries, including France and England.

3. Give each paragraph a heading of your own. Compare your headings with other members of the group. Are all the headings possible?

4. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and expressions. Make up sentences or situations using them.

To be made by the people and for the people; to separate everyday law from religious beliefs, to be written in blood; trial by jury; to be eligible to serve; to appeal government decision; to retain the tradition; to prohibit the tradition; to split into rival factions; under Solon’s law; the social, political and economic evils; to have one’s proper place and function; to establish courts; to turn in hope of a generally satisfactory solution; the concept of ‘natural law’; to revise all statutes except that on homicide; to contribute to the Roman law; to eliminate corruption; to make justice available; a hand-book for law students; to pass laws.

5. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.

Розвинути концепцію права; приписувати закони богам; скласти кодекс законів; стосуватися надзвичайно жорстоких мір; повністю афінський законодавець; закріпачення боржників; розбити на ворожі фракції; соціальні, політичні та економічні негаразди; тиранія, що настала; загально задовільне рішення; впорядковане суспільство; належне місце та функція; шокуюче суворий; написані кров’ю; прийняти закони; під керівництвом; переглянути; вбивство; більш людяний; знищення корупції; зробити правосуддя доступним кожному; залишитися незайманим; імператорські укази.

6. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.

Homicides, rival, eliminate,prohibited, ultimately, dictatorship, established, drawn up, split, appeal, subsequent, Assembly, solution, measures

1. The lawyer has …. a plan to win the case. 2. We took ….. to insure their safety. 3. Every kingdom ….. depends on moral influence and not on physical force. 4. He will go on ….. later this month charged with murder. 5. The coalition is …. into …. factions. 6. The Act of Union and the …. acts united the territory of the country. 7. The Soviet power established the …… of the proletariat. 8. I’m sure the police will find the ….. to this case. 9. Smoking is strictly…... 10. The General ….. is composed of representatives of nearly all the nations of the world. 11. To help the Court of Justice cope with the large number of cases brought before it, a ‘Court of First Instance’ was....... in 1989. 12. The universities have to...... to the government for more money. 14....... do not always involve a crime; sometimes the law allows homicide, for example, in self defence. 15. One of the urgent tasks of modern societies is to....... corruption. 16. When parliament..... a bill, it becomes a law.

B: Fill in the appropriate proposition or adverb where necessary.

1. We attribute trial … jury …. ancient Greeks. 2. She gave evidence …. his trial. 3. Children are prohibited ….. buying cigarettes. 3. Draco’s laws were so severe that people said that they were written ….. blood. 4. This law does not apply ….. this case. 5. The economic and political crisis culminated …. the revolution. 7. The Greeks contributed the concept of ‘natural law’ … the Roman law. 8. …. Solon’s law Athenians could appeal government decisions …. court. 9. Justinian tried to make justice available …. everyone. 10. Justinian’s Code consisted … the edicts, the Digest, the Institutes and the Novels. 11. The Roman codes greatly influenced …. the laws of all Europe.

7. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.

1. to appeal	a. discontented, often self-interested group of persons within a party;
2. measure	b. kind of government existing when a ruler has complete power, esp. when this power has been obtained by force;
3. to contribute	c. to join with others in giving help, money, ideas, suggestion for a common purpose;
4. trial	d. to examine and accept;
5. jury	e. body of persons who swear to give a decision (verdicts) on issues;
6. faction	f. killing of a human being;
7. rival	g. size, quantity, degree, weight, etc., found by a standard or unit;
8. tyranny	h. a person who competes with another because he wants the same thing or to be or to do better than the other;
9.to pass	i. examination in a law court before a judge (or a judge and a jury);
10. homicide	j. to take a question to a higher court for rehearing and a new decision;

8. Read and say whether these statements are true or false.

1. People began to draw up laws only after paper had been invented. 2. Most civilizations believed that gods made laws. 3. Solon’s code was the first written Greek code. 4. Draco’s code provided for death for all criminal offences. 5. The ancient Greeks had a tradition of trial by jury. 6. All Greeks were eligible to serve in the Assembly. 7. Romans devised the concept of natural law. 8. Solon’s laws prevented the revolution in Greece. 9. Roman laws influenced laws of all European countries. 10. The English legal system has Roman roots as well.

9. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, c) which best suits the sentence.

1. The Law carved into twelve bronze tablets was set up ….

a) in the Assembly; b) in the Forum; c) in the temple;

2. Draco’s laws were …. a) humane; b) fair; c) severe;

3. Solon …… almost all Draco’s laws. a) revised; b) retained; c) permitted;

4. Courts in Athens were established by…… a) Draco; b) Solon; c)Justinian;

5. The Digest was …. a) a hand-book for law students; b) the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) laws passed by Justinian;

6. The English law system has …. as part of its hereditary roots.

a) the Hebraic Code; b) the law of Babylon; c) the Roman law;

7. The Roman Empire remained intact until ….

a) the 10^th century A.D.; b) the 5^th century A.D.; c) the first century B.C.

10. Translate into English.

А. 1. Вбивство не є кримінальним злочином, якщо воно скоєне для самозахисту. 2. Ця партія розбита на невеличкі фракції. 3. Вони подали апеляцію до вищого суду. 4. Суддя провів чотири процеси за один день. 5. Суд розглядав його справу за участю присяжних. 6. Його обвинуватили у скоєнні тяжкого правопорушення. 7. Римське право мало глибокий вплив на юридичну систему Європи. 8. Соціальні, економічні та політичні негаразди можуть призвести до революції. 9. Не треба приписувати свою недбалість незнанню (ignorance) законів. 10. Ніщо не може похитнути мої переконання, що надзвичайно суворі міри не знищать злочинність. 11. Грецькі законодавці зробили великий внесок та мали глибокий вплив на законодавство Риму. 12. Лікар встановив причину смерті потерпілого. 13. Всі громадяни, які досягли вісімнадцятирічного віку, мають право бути обраними до асамблеї. 14. Парламент прийняв закон після третього читання.

Б. Драконт – афінський законодавець, чиї суворі закони передбачали (provide for) тільки одне покарання – смерть – за незначні порушення та тяжкі злочини, скоєні в Афінах. Навіть лінощі (idleness) каралися смертю. Його ім’я також пов’язується з усім жорстоким та безжалісним – «драконівські міри», «драконівські закони», «драконівський кодекс».

Кодекс Драконта, який датується 621 р. до нашої ери, не був першим записаним кодексом афінських законів, але він, ймовірно, був першим повним кодексом чи переробкою попередніх законів. Пізніше Солон скасував (to abolish) драконівські закони та видав (to issue) нові, залишивши незмінним лише покарання за вбивство.

11. Speak on the following items:

1. The Greek laws.

2. The Roman laws.

3. The influence of ancient laws on the modern world.

12. Write a mini-composition for or against the following statement ‘There is some internal law. It is good for all times and places. ’

Grammar Section

PAST PERFECT & PAST PERFERT CONTINUOUS

1. Fill in the gaps with one of the verbs from the list in the past perfect continuous.

Read, scream, argue, try, watch, eat

1. Ann was angry. She ….. with her partners for an hour. 2. Andrew had a headache. His sister ……. for half an hour. 3. Simon was confused. He ……… to win the case for weeks. 4. Helen felt sick. She …….. chocolates all afternoon. 5. Sally was frightened. She …. a horror film for half an hour. 6. John was very tired. He …. all night.

2. First, say which action happened first, then join the sentences using the words in brackets, as in the example.

Example: He saved a lot of money. Then, he bought a car. (when) – saved a lot of money: happened first When he had saved a lot of money, he bought a car.

1. He learned the words. Then, he began to write the report (before). 2. He passed all the exams. Then, he went on holiday. (by the time) 3. My colleagues came. Then, we started working (when). 4. The girls put on their uniforms. Then, they went to school. (before) 5. He committed a crime. Then, the police arrested him. (after) 6. Solon abolished Draco’s laws. Then, he issued his own laws. (after)

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the past perfect or past perfect continuous.

1. A: Did you do anything last night? – B: I went to the library to prepare for the ceminar and I …. (just / arrive) home when Michael phoned me. He said he …. (try) to phone me for ten minutes before I finally answered the phone. 2. A: Did you meet your client yesterday? – B: Yes. I … (sit) in my office for half and hour when he came. 3. A: Did you have enough time to finish your English test? – B: Almost. I …. (just / start) writing the last sentence when the bell rang. We …. (write) it for about an hour. 4. A: Why were you so upset this morning? - B: I was very upset, because I …. (fail) my examination, I …. (prepare) for it for nearly a week. 5. A: Why were you late for your classes this morning? – B: I …. (wait) for the bus over 20 minutes before it eventually arrived.

4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct past tense.

A. On Monday morning, Jo 1) ….. (miss) the bus and had to walk to University. When she 2) ….. (arrive), the bell 3). … (already / ring) and the classes 4) …. (start). The students 5) … (work) quietly when Jo 6) …. (walk) into the classroom.

B. When Jack 1) … (get) to the party, a lot of people 2) …. (dance) to music. Everyone 3) … (wear) jeans and T-shits. Jack 4) … (buy) a new suit for the party and he 5) …. (wear) that. He 6) … (feel) quite silly because everyone 7) … (look) at him.

5. A. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

Oprah Winfrey (1) …… (begin) speaking publicly in church at the age of two. By the time she (2) ……. (be) twelve, she (3) …….. (already / decide) what she wanted to do for a living. She (4) …… (want) to be ‘paid to talk.’ In fact, it wasn’t too long afterward that she (5) ….. (get) her first radio job. Although she (6) …… (not / have) any previous experience, she was hired to report the news.

When Winfrey (7) …… (get) her own TV show in 1986, she (8) …….. (already / be) a TV news reporter and (9) …….. (make) her acting debut in a major Hollywood movie, The Color Purple. Oprah’s warm personality (10) …… (make) her TV guests comfortable, and her human-interest stories on topics such as child abuse – Oprah, herself, (11) …….. (be) a victim – touched the hearts of her viewing audience. ‘The Oprah Winfrey Show’ quickly (12) ……. (become) one of the most popular shows in the United States, and by the late 1980s ‘Oprah Winfrey’ (13) ……… (become) a household world. When asked about her future, Winfrey says, ‘… it’s so bright it burns my eyes.’

B. Complete the psychologist’s description of a patient who had appeared as a guest on ‘The Oprah Winfrey Show.’ Use the appropriate verb from the box and put it in the correct form.

arrest; leave; become; lose; bring; recommend; have; see; hurt

I (1) _____________ hundreds like him before. He sat on the couch and stared out the window. He was only sixteen. His mother sat next to him. She (2) _________ him to see me. She (3) ___________ control of her son. Ever since his father (4) ____________ them four years before, she (5) __________ trouble with her son. He (6) _____________ more and more angry and depressed. Recently he (7) ___________ someone in a school fight. The police (8) __________ him and (9) _________ psychological counseling. The mother was afraid he was going to run away from home.

6. Translate into English. А )

А) Я написав вправу	вчора.	б) Я прочитала цю книгу	(можу переказати її).
(ось вона.)	у минулому семестрі.
до того, як прийшла мама.	до того, як ти прийшов.
Я писала листа	доки він читав.	Я готувався до семінару	коли він прийшов.
коли він прийшов.	до його приходу.
вже годину, коли він прийшов.	вже кілька годин, коли він прийшов.
В) Я зробив доповідь	минулого тижня.	г) Вони вивчили нові слова	(можете перевірити.)
до 9-ї години.
цьоготижня.	щойно.
до того, як ви зайшли до залу.	до того, як ти мені дзвонив.
Я робив доповідь	коли ви зайшли до залу.	Вони вчили нові слова	вчора о 7 годині.
вже півгодини, коли ви зайшли до залу.	вже кілька годин, коли я прийшов до них.
Е) Дощ йшов	вчора весь день.	Дощ пройшов	минулого тижня.
цього тижня.
вже кілька годин, коли ми вийшли на вулицю.	до того, як ми вийшли на вулицю.

Б) 1. Катя вийшла з університету, сіла на автобус та поїхала додому. Коли вона прийшла додому, її брат робив домашнє завдання.Доки він займався, вона готовула вечерю. 2. Що ти робила вчора у цей час? – Я писала курсову в університетській бібліотеці. Я писала її вже майже годину, коли прийшли мої одногрупники. – Коли ти повернулася додому? – Пізно. 3. З ким ти розмовляв вчора, коли я зустрів тебе? – Я розмовляв з другом. Він приїхав до Києва два дні тому. Ми розмовляли вже півгодини, коли ти побачив нас. 4. Петро жив в університетському гуртожитку вже півроку, коли його двоюрідний брат приїхав відвідати його. Він розказав Петру, що його батько був хворим кілька тижнів, але він вже повністю одужав. 5. Ніна приїхала до нашого міста три роки тому. До того часу вона вже закінчила університет. 6. Коли він зайшо до класу, то згадав, що залишив не лише підручник, але й зошит вдома. Він дуже нервував, тому що не вивчив слова, які задавала вчителька. Після того, як він неправильно переклав речення, його одногрупниця спробувала перекласти його правильно.

7. Underline the correct form of the verb. In some sentences both verb forms are correct.

1. In those day, I always used to get up / got up early in the morning. 2. When I got to the cinema, Jack had been waiting / was waiting for me. 3. We would always have / were always having breakfast in bed on Sunday. 4. Mary was always falling /always fell ill before important examinations. 5. My sister used to own / would own motorcycle. 6. Pay no attention to Dave’s remarks. He wasn’t meaning / didn’t mean it. 7. I felt awful after lunch. I ate / had eaten too much. 8. Brenda left / had left bedore I had time to talk to her. 9. The explanation was simple. In 1781 HMS Sovereign, on her way back from India, had sighted / sighted an empty boat drifting off the African coast. 10. Pauline has changed a lot. She didn’t always use to look / wasn’t always looking like that.

8. Put the verb into the correct form.

A. The train ………. (1. grind) to a halt at a small station miles from Lomdon, and it ……….. (2. become) apparent that the engine ………… (3. break down). Everyone ……….. (4. get) their cases down from the luggage racks, and we ………….. (5. wait) on the platform in the freezing wind for hours until the next train …………. (6. turn up).

B. The mysterious disappearance of Professor Dawson …… (1. be) on Inspector Gorse’s mind. Six months before the Professor’s disappearance, he ……. (2. receive) a letter from Jean Dawson, the Professor’s wife. In the letter, Jean …….. (3. accuse) her husband of plotting to murder her. Gorse ……….. (4. consider) what his next step should be when the telephone ……….. (5. ring). It was Sergeant Adams from Thames Valley police force. A fisherman ……. (6. discover) a body in the River Thames, and it ……… (7. fit) the description of the Professor.

C. 1. I realized that someone ……… (steal) my wallet when I ………. (feel) their hand in my jacket pocket. 2. When I ………. (phone) Helen last night she ……….. (prepare) for the seminar. 3. Peter ….. (offer) me another drink but I decided I ………… (have) enough. 4. Nobody ….. (watch), so the boy …… (take) the packet of sweets from the shelf and …… (put) it in his pocket. 5. I ……… (not / realize) that I …… (leave) my umbrella on the bus until it …… (start) to rain. 6. At school I …….. (dislike) the mathematics teacher because he …….. (always / pick) on me. 7. Wherever Marion ……….. (find) a job, there was someone who …….. (know) that she …………. (go) to prison. 8. Several years later I ……….. (find out) that during all the time I …….. (write) to my pen friend, my mother …… (open) and ………. (read) the replies! 9. I ……….. (not / understand) what ………… (go on). Several people ………. (shout) at me, and one passer-by ……….. (wave) a newspaper in front of my face. 10. I ………. (know) I ………. (do) well in my exams before I ………… (receive) the official results.

UNIT SIX