Modernism in Ukrainian culture: general characteristics

Ukrainian modernism was distinguished by its use of color (both Ekster and Sonia Delauney, who originally came from Ukraine, did much to introduce bright colours into Western cubism and modern design) and its special feeling for texture. Another particularly strong Ukrainian modernist feature was the interest in primitivism, the direct, powerful, and simple as expressed in folk creativity or ancient traditions. In Ukrainian architecture modernism was manifested in the revival of a Ukrainian national style in the projects of Vasyl H. Krychevsky, Konstantin Zhukov, Oleksander Tymoshenko, and Ivan Levynsky, and in the constructivism of Vladyslav Horodetsky, Petro H.Yurchenko, Yevsevii Lipetsky, S. Kravets, and others.

After the Second World War, modernism dominated in Ukrainian émigré art, particularly in the United States and Canada, in reaction to socialist realism, the only artistic method sanctioned in the USSR. Strongly influenced by abstraction and the simplified forms of modern design, a modernist esthetic can be seen in the works of Liuboslav Hutsaliuk, Myron Levytsky, Edvard Kozak, Roman Kowal, Arcadia Olenska-Petryshyn, Jurij Solovij, Konstantin Milonadis, Volodymyr Makarenko, and other émigré artists, and in the architectural projects of Radoslav Zuk and V. Deneka.

Ukrainian literary modernism made its appearance at the turn of the century with the Lviv-based Moloda Muza group, who championed the idea of ‘pure art,’ and the Kyiv-based journal Ukraæns’ka khata. Mykola Vorony, an early theoretician of the movement, believed that modernism consisted of a change in thematic focus from the social to the psychological, of the enrichment of forms of versification, and of greater sophistication of metaphor. The movement dominated Ukrainian poetry after the publication of Pavlo Tychyna’s Soniashni klarnety (Sunny Clarinets, 1918) and Zamist’ sonetiv i oktav (Instead of Sonnets and Octaves, 1920). In the 1920s it was manifested in the radical poetic experiments of Mykhailo Semenko and Valeriian Polishchuk and in the poetry of Mykola Bazhan and other poets. Examples in prose include the impressionistic works of Vasyl Stefanyk and Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, the psychological prose of Volodymyr Vynnychenko and, in the 1920s, Valeriian Pidmohylny, and the experimental prose of Mykola Khvylovy’s (Syni etiudy [Blue Etudes], 1923) and Leonid Skrypnyk’s (Intelihent [The Intellectual], 1929). Ukrainian literary modernism also produced strong women writers who expressed feminist concerns (eg, Lesia Ukrainka and Olha Kobylianska). In Ukrainian émigré literature, modernism was most apparent in the work of the interwar ‘Prague school’ of Ukrainian poets and the postwar New York Group of poets.

In the early 1930s the Soviet authorities repressed and then eradicated modernism and its exponents in both literature and the arts, demanding in its place a state-sanctioned form of populism that stressed the heroic gesture and loyalty to the Communist party. Most forms of modernist experimentation were denounced as ‘formalism,’ ‘psychologism,’ ‘bourgois nationalism,’ or ‘decadence.’ Not until the 1960s did a literary movement—the shistdesiatnyky— re-emerge in Ukraine that built on the gains made by modernists in the century’s first three decades.

71. Socialist realism in the USSR: general characteristics
Socialist realism - the creative method, which has developed in the early XX century. as a reflection of the processes of artistic culture in the period of socialist revolution, as an expression of conscious socialist conception of the world and man.
In 1934, socialist realism, the essence of which was defined as "a true and
historically correct depiction of reality in its revolutionary development "was
proclaimed the official style of Soviet art.
показать полностью..71. SOCIALIST REALISM IN THE USSR: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Socialist realism - the creative method, which has developed in the early XX century. as a reflection of the processes of artistic culture in the period of socialist revolution, as an expression of conscious socialist conception of the world and man.
In 1934, socialist realism, the essence of which was defined as "a true and
historically correct depiction of reality in its revolutionary development "was
proclaimed the official style of Soviet art.
Special way in realism is "socialist realism" inherent in the literature of the Soviet Union and the countries of the socialist community. Under the conditions of existence of the totalitarian regime there was obedient to the power of literature. Literary Process lost multicolor. Theorists of "socialist realism" demanded that writers embellish the story, pushed them to "cutting" of reality.

72. Socialist realism in the USSR: main representatives

Changes in socialist realism occurred in step with changes in the regime. The initial programmatic resolution that guaranteed choice of form, style, and genre had no practical application. In its first period (1934–
показать полностью..72. SOCIALIST REALISM IN THE USSR: MAIN REPRESENTATIVES
Changes in socialist realism occurred in step with changes in the regime. The initial programmatic resolution that guaranteed choice of form, style, and genre had no practical application. In its first period (1934–41) socialist realism's range in prose and painting was restricted to depictions of industrialization and collectivization (in painting, the focus was mainly on portraits and monuments to Joseph Stalin). Poetry was reduced to stilted odes to the Party and its leaders (eg, Pavlo Tychyna's Partiia vede [The Party Leads the Way] and Maksym Rylsky's Pisnia pro Stalina [Song about Stalin]). Music consisted of cantatas dedicated to the Party. During the Second World War art was mainly the patriotic poster and the satirical caricature, and literature was dominated by patriotic themes and publicistic style (eg, narratives and articles of Oleksander Dovzhenko). Gradually the theme of glorification of the Russian ‘big brother’ crept in, and it was intensified after the war. The theme reached a climax in the ‘unification celebrations’ of 1954. It was reflected in various genres and media: in prose, in works such as Natan Rybak's Pereiaslavs’ka rada (The Pereiaslav Council, 2 vols, 1948, 1953), and in painting, in Mykhailo Derehus's Pereiaslav Council (1952) and M. Khmelko's Forever with Moscow, Forever with the Russian People (1951–4). The theme remained constant in Ukrainian socialist-realist literature and art; only its intensity varied.

80
After the middle of the 12th century frescoes almost completely replaced mosaics in the decoration of church interiors. The most complete set of frescoes from this period has been preserved in the church of Saint Cyril's Monastery in Kyiv and in the Transfiguration Church i
show all..80. AFTER THE MIDDLE OF THE 12TH CENTURY FRESCOES ALMOST COMPLETELY REPLACED MOSAICS IN THE DECORATION OF CHURCH INTERIORS. The most complete set of frescoes from this period has been preserved in the church of Saint Cyril's Monastery in Kyiv and in the Transfiguration Church in Berestove in which a 12th-century fresco ‘Miraculous Fishing’ was uncovered in the 1970s. The influence of Balkan art is evident. Frescoes depicting the sacraments of the Eucharist and the holy orders are found under the traditional Orante in the altar apse and, as in Bulgaria, are imitations of hanging icons. On the walls and vault of the narthex appear the first paintings of the Last Judgment and scenes of the Apocalypse known in Ukraine. In contrast to the idealized figures of Saint Sophia Cathedral's frescoes, the figures of Saint Cyril's Monastery display features of the local population. The colors are bright and warm, dominated by ocher and red (eg., Presentation at the Temple). The vaults and walls are covered with numerous scenes representing a new type of decorative art, which was characteristic of the 12th-century Kyiv school of church painting.

81. first collection of Ukrainian futurist poetry—Mykhailo Semenko's Preliud (Prelude)—appeared in 1913. It was followed by Derzannia (Audacity) and Kverofuturyzm (Querofuturism). As an active proponent of futurism, Semenko founded several Ukrainian futurist organizations and journal
показати повністю..FIRST COLLECTION OF UKRAINIAN FUTURIST POETRY—MYKHAILO SEMENKO'S PRELIUD (PRELUDE)—APPEARED IN 1913. It was followed by Derzannia (Audacity) and Kverofuturyzm (Querofuturism). As an active proponent of futurism, Semenko founded several Ukrainian futurist organizations and journals: Fliamingo (1919–21), ASPANFUT (Association of Panfuturists, 1921–4), and, after moving to Kharkiv from Kyiv, the journal Nova generatsiia (1927–30). Because only Communist ideals were permitted, the journal became a militant advocate of ‘proletarian art.’ At first it called for the destruction of old forms and, when this was recognized to be of little use for the building of a new society, it propagated constructivism and suprematism. After Kazimir Malevich's expulsion from Moscow, Semenko published a series of Malevich's articles on suprematism in his journal. A number of talented poets belonged to the futurist group: Geo Shkurupii and Oleksa Vlyzko, who like Semenko were executed for ‘nationalism’ in the 1930s, Mykola Skuba, and the theoretician Oleksii Poltoratsky. The eminent poet Mykola Bazhan and the greatest poet of the Ukrainian revolutionary period, Pavlo Tychyna, were for some time influenced by futurism and utilized some of its ideas in their work. The poet Valeriian Polishchuk was closely associated with futurism, on the basis of which he tried to build his own movement of ‘dynamic spiralism.’ The futurists were never as prominent in the Ukrainian literature of their time as the symbolists or Neoclassicists, who never severed their ties with the past. Yet the futurists succeeded in reinvigorating poetry by introducing fresh themes and forms and above all by their experimentation. The group Nova Generatsiia propagated new Western European trends such as Dadaism and surrealism, although this practice conflicted with its journal's official crude sociological declarations. The journal ceased publication under pressure from the authorities.
Besides the organizations mentioned above, there were also local groups of futurists: Kom-Kosmos in Kharkiv (1921), Yugolif (including local Russian futurists) in Odesa, and SiM (Selo i Misto [Village and City]) in Moscow (1925), which embraced Ukrainian writers in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. All these groups rejected the classical legacy and advocated ‘the destruction of forms’ for the sake of ‘the Communist future.’ In the 1920s the futurists published the following periodicals: Universal’nyi zhurnal, Semafor u maibutnie, Katafalk iskusstva, and Golfshtrom.
In the fine arts, besides Alexander Archipenko, who left Ukraine in 1906, the following artists in Ukraine were closely associated with futurism of the constructivist rather than the anarchist bent: A. Ekster, Oleksander Bohomazov, Anatol Petrytsky, M. Semenko's brother Vasyl, Vasyl Yermilov, Kazimir Malevich, Ye. Prybylska, Yevhen Sahaidachny, Osyp Sorokhtei, Pavlo Kovzhun, and the members of the Nova Generatsiia circle. Still, before all the literary and artistic organizations were disbanded in Ukraine in 1932, futurism was officially denounced as bourgeois and was banned.

82. Vilna Akademia Proletarskoi LITEratury (ВАПЛІТЕ) (Ukrainian: Вільна академія пролетарської літератури, Free Academy of Proletarian Literature) was a literary union in Ukraine. It was established in Kharkiv and existed from January, 1926 to January 28, 1928.[1]

Acceptin
показати повністю..82. VILNA AKADEMIA PROLETARSKOI LITERATURY (ВАПЛІТЕ) (Ukrainian: Вільна академія пролетарської літератури, Free Academy of Proletarian Literature) was a literary union in Ukraine. It was established in Kharkiv and existed from January, 1926 to January 28, 1928.
Accepting the official requirements of the Communist Party, in literary policy VAPLITE has taken an independent position and was standing on the grounds of creation the new Ukrainian literature by quilified artists who put in front of them the demand of improvement and mastering the best achievements of western European culture. The virtual leader of the union was Mykola Khvylovy; the president were Mykhailo Yalovy, later - Mykola Kulish; and the secretary was Arkadiy Liubchenko.
In the organization actively worked, the above mentioned, Mykola Khvylovy, Mykhailo Yalovy, Oles Dosvitny, Mykola Kulish, Hryhorii Epik, Pavlo Tychyna, Ivan Senchenko, Oleksa Slisarenko, Petro Panch, Mykola Bazhan, Yuriy Yanovskyi, Yuriy Smolych, Ivan Dniprovsky, Oleksandr Kopylenko etc.
Prior to the organization of the association the major literary associations were the Union of Proletarian Writers Hart and the Union of Peasant Writers Pluh. Those organizations were mostly culturally enlightening which in actuality distracted them from their literary artistic goals.
In 1927 VAPLITE was issuing its magazine "VAPLITE".
The views of Mykola Khvylovy led to criticism from the Party and government personnel of the Ukrainian SSR. Especially acute attacks suffered his work, "Waldshnepi". Due to constant persecutions VAPLITE was forced to self-dissolve in 1928. The members of VAPLITE continued their literary activity in the literary almanac "Literary Fair" (1928–29) and the organization "Politfront". The members of VAPLITE became one of the first victims of Stalin regime's repressions.

84. Mykola Zerov has been rightly considered the leader of ‘Neoclassicists’ - a group of poets, translators, and critics of literature, O. Burgardt, M. Dray-Khmara, M. Rylsky and P. Fylypovych are also referred to. Although they were not formally constituted a separate literary o
показати повністю..83. MYKOLA ZEROV HAS BEEN RIGHTLY CONSIDERED THE LEADER OF ‘NEOCLASSICISTS’ - a group of poets, translators, and critics of literature, O. Burgardt, M. Dray-Khmara, M. Rylsky and P. Fylypovych are also referred to. Although they were not formally constituted a separate literary organization, what they had in common was their high aesthetic criteria that comprised the priority of human values in art. In his original poetic creation Zerov preferred sonnets and Alexandrines that stand out for perfection of form and for profound philosophical penetration into the life. As a translator he has made interpretations of the ancient heritage and the French Parnassians as well as works of many other classical poets, which has been unsurpassed in many ways to this day.

84. The downfall of the Russian Empire after the First World War, the resulting abolition of imperial censorship, the establishment of an independent Ukrainian state (even if for a very short time), and the relative leniency of the Soviet regime in the 1920s all led to an astonis
показати повністю..84. The downfall of the Russian Empire after the First World War, the resulting abolition of imperial censorship, the establishment of an independent Ukrainian state (even if for a very short time), and the relative leniency of the Soviet regime in the 1920s all led to an astonishing renaissance of literary and cultural activity in Ukraine. Scores of new writers and poets appeared and formed dozens of literary groups that changed the face of Ukrainian literature. Perhaps the most charismatic cultural leader was Mykola Khvylovy, a prominent writer, publicist, and founder of the elitist literary organization Vaplite. Among Vaplite's members were a renowned playwright Mykola Kulish, a brilliant symbolist poet Pavlo Tychyna, an avant-garde poet and writer Maik Yohansen, and such writers and poets as Yurii Yanovsky, Arkadii Liubchenko, and Mykola Bazhan. However, the Ukrainian cultural renaissance of the 1920s was brutally quashed by Stalinist terror of the 1930s. As a symbolic act of defiance and concern for his nation in the face of the man-made famine and the growing campaign of political terror, Khvylovy committed suicide in May 1933. The majority of Vaplite members, including Kulish and Yohansen, were imprisoned and executed. Others, including Tychyna, were forced to capitulate to the Soviet regime and begin producing works in the socialist-realist style which glorified Joseph Stalin and the Party. Nonetheless, in a very brief time of relative creative freedom, these writers managed to create a remarkable and lasting literary legacy.

85. Shistdesiatnyky (also Shestydesiatnyky; The Sixtiers). The literary generation that began to publish in the second half of the 1950s, during Nikita Khrushchev's ‘de-Stalinization,’ and reached their literary peak in the early 1960s; hence, their name. The first representative
показати повністю..85. SHISTDESIATNYKY (ALSO SHESTYDESIATNYKY; THE SIXTIERS). The literary generation that began to publish in the second half of the 1950s, during Nikita Khrushchev's ‘de-Stalinization,’ and reached their literary peak in the early 1960s; hence, their name. The first representatives were Lina Kostenko and Vasyl Symonenko. Following their lead came a veritable proliferation of poets: Ivan Drach, Mykola Vinhranovsky, H. Kyrychenko, Vasyl Holoborodko, Ihor Kalynets, B. Mamaisur, and others. At first Vitalii Korotych was close to the group. The more prominent prose writers were Valerii Shevchuk, Hryhir Tiutiunnyk, Volodymyr Drozd, Yevhen Hutsalo, and Ya. Stupak, and literary critics, Ivan Dziuba, Yevhen Sverstiuk, Ivan Svitlychny, and I. Boichak. The shistdesiatnyky held their ‘literary parents’ responsible for Stalinist crimes, for adapting to a despotic regime, and for creative impotence (eg, Drach in ‘Oda chesnomu boiahuzovi’ [Ode to an Honest Coward]). In turn, some of the older writers, such as Pavlo Tychyna, Platon Voronko, Mykola Sheremet, and MykhailoChabanivsky, exhibited a hostile attitude to the experimentation and innovation of the shistdesiatnyky. Characteristic of shistdesiatnyky poetry was the renewal of poetic forms and subjects, which had been stamped out by the dogma of socialist realism. The prose of the group was characterized by realistic descriptions free of the constraints of socialist realism, witty humor (as in the short stories of Tiutiunnyk) or sharp satire (as in Drozd's ‘Katastrofa’ [Catastrophe] and ‘Maslyny’ [Olives]), subtle delineation of the motives of protagonists, and an interest in historical subjects (as in the works of Shevchuk).

86. The shistdesiatnyky movement lasted barely a decade. The writers concerned were harshly criticized at a special meeting of the creative intelligentsia as early as 1963, and they were completely silenced by the arrests of 1965–72. During the course of those repressions some in
показати повністю..86. THE SHISTDESIATNYKY MOVEMENT LASTED BARELY A DECADE. The writers concerned were harshly criticized at a special meeting of the creative intelligentsia as early as 1963, and they were completely silenced by the arrests of 1965–72. During the course of those repressions some individual writers went over to the official position without having offered particular resistance (eg, Vitalii Korotych, VolodymyrDrozd, and Yevhen Hutsalo). Some of them were denied permission to publish, or refused to do so for some time (Lina Kostenko); others were not published again until the changes after 1985 (B. Mamaisur, Vasyl Holoborodko, Ya. Stupak). Others, who continued to oppose national discrimination and Russification and took part in the Ukrainian dissident movement, were arrested and punished with long sentences (Ivan Svitlychny, Vasyl Stus, Yevhen Sverstiuk, Ihor Kalynets, and Valerii Marchenko), whereupon some died in labor camps(Stus, Marchenko). Only Ivan Dziuba recanted, and after his release he was permitted to continue his literary work. The shistdesiatnykymovement completely died out at the beginning of the 1970s. Elements of the literary rebirth that it had initiated remained only in the works of certain poets and prose writers (Kostenko, Valerii Shevchuk). Apart from that, the shistdesiatnyky movement played an important role in popularizing samvydav literature and, most of all, in strengthening the opposition movement against Russian state chauvinism and Russification (as in Dziuba's book Internatsionalizm chy rusyfikatsiia? [Internationalism or Russification?, 1965], the essays of Sverstiuk, the samvydav poetry of many authors, especially Vasyl Symonenko and Mykola Kholodny, the accusatory leaflets and protest letters of Stus, Marchenko, and others). With the declaration of glasnost and perestroika in 1985, the shistdesiatnyky once again became active both in their own creative work and in publicistic writings in defense of the Ukrainian language and the autonomy of Ukrainian culture. Some of them, like Ivan Drach and Dziuba, became active politically in independent Ukraine.