Cultural role of ostrih academy

OSTRIH ACADEMY: EASTERN EUROPE'S FIRST INSTITUTION OF HIGHER LEARNING.Founded ca 1576 in Ostrih, Volhynia, by a Ukrainian nobleman Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky--one of the most remarkable figures in the 16th-century Ukrainian cultural and national rebirth--the Ostih Academy was the first postsecondary learning center in the Orthodox Eastern Europe. At a time when Catholicism was making inroads into Western Ukraine, the academy was a bastion of Orthodoxy and Ruthenian culture and maintained the traditional orientation toward Constantinople. Though the Ostrih Academy did not develop into a Western European-style university, as Ostrozky had hoped, it was the foremost Orthodox academy of its time. Closely associated with the Ostrih Press, the academy and the Ostrih intellectual circle had an enduring influence on pedagogical thought and the organization of schools in Ukraine and provided a model for the brotherhood schools that were later founded in Lviv, Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Vilnius, and Brest. With the founding of a rival Jesuit college in Ostrih in 1624, the academy went into decline, and by 1636 it had ceased to exist.

KYIVAN MOHYLA ACADEMY

The leading center of higher education in 17th- and 18th-century Ukraine, which exerted a significant intellectual influence over the entire Orthodox world at the time. Established in 1632 by Petro Mohyla through the merger of the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School (est 1631 by Mohyla), the new school was conceived by its founder as an academy, ie, an institution of higher learning offering philosophy and theology courses and supervising a network of secondary schools. Completing the Orthodox school system, it was to compete on an equal footing with Polish academies run by the Jesuits. Fearing such competition, King Władysław IV Vasa granted the school the status of a mere college or secondary school, and prohibited it from teaching philosophy and theology. It was only in 1694 that the Kyivan Mohyla College was granted the full privileges of an academy, and only in 1701 that it was recognized officially as an academy by Peter I.

37.The invention of movable type and printing presses in Germany around 1450 had a tremendous and lasting influence on the cultural, social, religious, and scientific development of Europe. As the printing technologies spread throughout the continent and allowed for a quicker and
показати повністю..37.THE INVENTION OF MOVABLE TYPE AND PRINTING PRESSES IN GERMANY AROUND 1450 HAD A TREMENDOUS AND LASTING INFLUENCE ON THE CULTURAL, SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS, AND SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE. As the printing technologies spread throughout the continent and allowed for a quicker and wider dissemination of knowledge, they became a major catalyst for both the Reformation and the later scientific revolution. Printed books represented the key factor in the spread of education and literacy. In Ukraine, the first printing press was founded by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) in Lviv in 1573. Its equipment and assets were used to found the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press (1591-1788), which played a key role in the history of early Ukrainian printing. Printing in Volhynia began after Fedorovych entered the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky and founded what became the important Ostrih Press (1577-1612). Founded in the early 17th century the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press became the most important center of printing and engraving in Ukraine until the mid 19th century; it played a crucial role in raising the level of education and culture and in aiding the Orthodox Ukrainians to defend themselves against the inroads of Polonization and Catholicism...
The first printing press on Ukrainian ethnic territory was founded by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) in Lviv (1573–4). Its equipment and assets were used to found the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press (1591–1788), which played a key role in the history of early Ukrainian printing. Thereafter Lviv remained a major printing center. Established there were Polish (1592–1602, 1670–3, 1684–93), Calvinist (1608–11), and Armenian (1616–18) presses; Cyrillic presses owned by Y. Sheliha (1618–20, 1626–36), Mykhailo Slozka (1638–67), Bishop Arsenii Zhelyborsky (1644–6), and Bishop Yosyf Shumliansky at Saint George's Cathedral (1687–8); a press at the Polish Jesuit college (1642–1773); and the Polish presses of P. Golczewski (1735–51), Ivan Fylypovych (1753–67), and the Szlichtyn family (1755–85). Under Austrian rule the Piller family press (1772 to 19th century) printed books in Latin, Gothic, Hebrew, Greek, and Cyrillic. Printing in Volhynia began after Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) entered the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky and founded what became the important Ostrih Press (1577–1612). Later the important Pochaiv Monastery Press (1730–1918) was founded.
In Right-Bank Ukraine the Polish Protestant Panivtsi Press (1608–11) functioned briefly in Podilia. In Kyiv, printing began with the founding of the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press (1615–1918). It remained the largest printing press in Ukraine until the mid-19th century. Other presses in Kyiv were founded by Tymofii Verbytsky (1624–8) and S. Sobol (1628–31). In 1787 a printing press was founded at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy; later it became the press of the Kyiv Theological Left-Bank Ukraine the first printing presses were those of Kyrylo Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon in Chernihiv (1646) and Archbishop Lazar Baranovych in Novhorod-Siverskyi (1674–9).
Fedorovych (Fedorov), Ivan [Fedorovyč], b ca 1525, d 16 December 1583 in Lviv. Fedorovych was the founder of book printing and book publishing in Russia and Ukraine. He was deacon of Saint Nicholas Gostunsky Church in Moscow, where, from 1553, he oversaw the construction of a printing house commissioned by Tsar Ivan IV. In 1564–5 Fedorovych and the Belarusian P. Mstsislavets published in Moscow several liturgical works in Church Slavonic. This technical innovation created competition for the Muscovite scribes, who persecuted Fedorovych and Mstsislavets and finally caused them to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There they were received by the Lithuanian great hetman H. Khodkevych at his estate in Zabłudów (Zabludiv) (northern Podlachia, on the Ukrainian-Belarusian border), where they published Ievanheliie uchytel’noie (Didactic Gospel, 1569) and Psaltyr’ (Psalter, 1570). In Zabłudów, Fedorovych changed his surname from Fedorov to Fedorovych. He moved to Lviv in 1572 and resumed his work as a print.

38.Cossack Baroque church is, if anything, even more embellished. The domes are frequently even more elongated than the original Kievan model and a dome that surmounts the church is commonly surmounted by a lantern, which may be surmounted by another smaller dome, which in turn i
показати повністю..38.COSSACK BAROQUE CHURCH IS, IF ANYTHING, EVEN MORE EMBELLISHED. The domes are frequently even more elongated than the original Kievan model and a dome that surmounts the church is commonly surmounted by a lantern, which may be surmounted by another smaller dome, which in turn is always surmounted by a cross. Thus, what is created is a layering of embellishment that distinguishes it much from the original Byzantine prototypes. The Cossack Baroque style became popular during the seventeenth century when there was a revitalization of Ukrainian culture as well as religious and social institutions under the rule of the Cossack hetmans.
It was around this time that considerable damage occurred when fire broke out at Kiev’s famous Monastery of the Caves (Percherska Lavra). When the buildings were reconstructed, the result was almost like a small city made up of Cossack Baroque buildings. In the picture of the Monastery skyline, note the multiplicity of domes. The one in the foreground is particularly layered in embellishment.

The skyline of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev
Holy Trinity Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral in Winnipeg is a modern structure that takes influence from the Cossack Baroque style. It has the cross-in-square floor plan and the highly elongated and layered domes. Such domes are more pear shaped than onion shaped. Holy Trinity was completed in 1962.

Holy Trinity Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral, Winnipeg, MB
Also in Winnipeg, one finds St. Mary the Protectress Ukrainian Orthodox Sobor. The amazing thing about this church is that it was built between 1925 and 1951 by mostly volunteer labour. The two towers at the front of the church are something of a western influence; however, the treatment of the domes is particularly baroque. This type of bud dome was one of the innovations that became common during the baroque period.

St. Mary the Protectress Ukrainian Orthodox Sobor, Winnipeg, MB
The Kievan and Cossack Baroque styles can be found in various regions of Ukraine but they tend more to be located in cities and substantial towns rather than in the rural villages. Given that most Ukrainian immigrants prior to 1945 came from rural settings it is interesting that so many churches in Canada were designed with this architectural style as the influence.

39.baroque style didn't develop in a vacuum. An art style takes bits and pieces of previous works and puts new twists on them. In addition, art can't be separated from the times in which the art was created.
History of the Baroque Style
Europe in the 17th century was a tu
показати повністю..39.BAROQUE STYLE DIDN'T DEVELOP IN A VACUUM. An art style takes bits and pieces of previous works and puts new twists on them. In addition, art can't be separated from the times in which the art was created.
History of the Baroque Style
Europe in the 17th century was a tumultuous time, with one hand reaching back into the past and the other reaching towards modern times. Almost all of Europe was involved at one point or another in the 30 Years War. The English Civil War ended with the beheading of Charles I, King of England. The Dutch Revolt, which had been fought for about 80 years, finally ended in 1648.
At the same time, great strides were being made in science. Isaac Newton published the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and The Starry Messenger. Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered minute living organisms in pond water.
This was all counterbalanced by the strain being put on the Catholic Church by Protestants, science and corruption.
During the late Renaissance, artists moved into Mannerism, which was a rejection of the balance and symmetry of Renaissance art. Mannerist paintings depicted figures and backgrounds that were distorted and designed to provoke emotions.
Baroque art borrowed from both Renaissance art and Mannerism. Baroque artists sought to combine the emotion of Mannerism with the harmony and grandeur of Renaissance art.
The two early leaders of Baroque art were Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci. Among his accomplishments, Caravaggio (1573-1610) perfected chiaroscuro, the art of contrasting light and dark. Carracci (1560-1609), considered to be the father of ideal landscape, is also know for his ability to paint gestures and his fine compositions.

40.Founded ca 1576 in Ostrih, Volhynia, by a Ukrainian nobleman Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky--one of the most remarkable figures in the 16th-century Ukrainian cultural and national rebirth--the Ostih Academy was the first postsecondary learning center in the Orthodox Eastern
показати повністю..40.FOUNDED CA 1576 IN OSTRIH, VOLHYNIA, BY A UKRAINIAN NOBLEMAN PRINCE KOSTIANTYN VASYL OSTROZKY--ONE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE FIGURES IN THE 16TH-CENTURY UKRAINIAN CULTURAL AND NATIONAL REBIRTH--THE OSTIH ACADEMY WAS THE FIRST POSTSECONDARY LEARNING CENTER IN THE ORTHODOX EASTERN EUROPE. At a time when Catholicism was making inroads into Western Ukraine, the academy was a bastion of Orthodoxy and Ruthenian culture and maintained the traditional orientation toward Constantinople. Though the Ostrih Academy did not develop into a Western European-style university, as Ostrozky had hoped, it was the foremost Orthodox academy of its time. Closely associated with the Ostrih Press, the academy and the Ostrih intellectual circle had an enduring influence on pedagogical thought and the organization of schools in Ukraine and provided a model for the brotherhood schools that were later founded in Lviv, Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Vilnius, and Brest.
The curriculum consisted of Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, theology, philosophy, medicine, natural science, and the classical free studies (mathematics, astronomy, grammar, rhetoric, and logic). In addition the academy was renowned for choral singing, and developed the ostrozkyi napiv.
The first rector of the academy was the writer Herasym Smotrytsky. The instructors, many of whom had been invited from Constantinople, included the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk, the Greek Cyril Lucaris, J. Latos (a philosopher and mathematician from Cracow University), and Yov Boretsky, who later became rector of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and then metropolitan of Kyiv. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, the writer and scholar Meletii Smotrytsky, and several other prominent political and cultural leaders studied at the academy. With the founding of a rival Jesuit college in Ostrih in 1624, the academy went into decline, and by 1636 it had ceased to exist.
Baranovych, Lazar [Baranovyč], 1593–1694; according to other data, 1620–93. Ecclesiastical, political, and literary figure, professor (1650) and rector of the Kyivan Mohyla College, and archbishop of Chernihiv from 1657. He founded schools and monasteries. In 1674 he established the Novhorod-Siverskyi Press, which in 1679 was moved to Chernihiv. He defended the independence of the Ukrainian clergy from the patriarch of Moscow. His sermons, written in a baroque style, were published in Mech dukhovnyi (The Spiritual Sword, 1666) and Truby sloves propovidnykh (The Trumpets of Preaching Words, 1674). He is the author of several polemical works against Catholicism in Polish and Ukrainian; of a poetry collection in Polish, Lutnia Apollinowa (Apollo's Lute, 1671); and of a large correspondence.

41.Vyshensky, Ivan [Vyšens’kyj], b ca 1550 in Sudova Vyshnia, Galicia, d after 1620 in Mount Athos, Greece. Orthodox monk and polemicist. Biographical information on him is sparse. He passed some of his youth in Lutsk and was connected with the Ostrih Academy scholars. Ca 1576–80
показати повністю..41.VYSHENSKY, IVAN [VYŠENS’KYJ], B CA 1550 IN SUDOVA VYSHNIA, GALICIA, D AFTER 1620 IN MOUNT ATHOS, GREECE. Orthodox monk and polemicist. Biographical information on him is sparse. He passed some of his youth in Lutsk and was connected with the Ostrih Academy scholars. Ca 1576–80 he entered a monastery at Mount Athos. There are 15 known works by Vyshensky: seven epistles, six treatises, a dialogue, and a story. His most important works were directed against the Church Union of Berestia and were written in the late 1590s. In 1600–1 he prepared a collection of the 10 works he had written by then and sent it to the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood, probably in the hope of having it printed. Titled ‘Knyzhka’ (Book), it did not appear in print at that time, but its transcriptions circulated widely in Ukraine. In 1604–6 he visited Ukraine and quarreled with the leaders of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood.
Vyshensky's writings stand out among Ukrainian polemical works of the 16th and 17th centuries by virtue of both their literary merit and their ideological content. He did not simply reject the Uniate church and Catholicism. Grounded in Byzantine asceticism, he sharply criticized temporal life and the entire church hierarchy and secular hierarchy and urged a return to the simplicity of old Christian brotherhood in order to bring about God's Kingdom on earth. He rejected as pagan both secular education and learning on the one hand and old, pre-Christian folk traditions on the other. Stylistically, Vyshensky drew upon the traditional forms of the epistle dialogue and polemical treatise and often mixed these genres. In strong, colorful language he depicted the moral decadence of the upper classes, particularly of the clergy, and contrasted them with poor peasants and simple monks. Exalted feelings alternate with harsh satire and sarcasm. An abundance of epithets and similes, the dramatic use of rhetorical questions and exhortations, ironic portrayals of everyday detail, a rich vocabulary, and the use of the vernacular make his writings lively and persuasive. His style owes much to Byzantine sermons and is closely related to the polemical writings of his Ukrainian (Meletii Smotrytsky) and Polish (Piotr Skarga, Mikołaj Rej) contemporaries. It is one of the finest examples of the baroque style.
Oral literature in Ukraine can be traced to pre-Christian times. Pagan ritual songs were subsequently much modified by association with various church feasts (e.g., kolyadky with the Christmas cycle). The heroic epics (byliny) of the early medieval period may have survived in Ukraine until the 16th century, but they were then wholly superseded by historical songs (dumy) based on events in the 16th and 17th centuries in Cossack Ukraine.
Written literature began with Christianization and the introduction of Old Church Slavonic as a liturgical and literary language. The literary
heritage of the Ukrainian people in the early period, from the 11th to the 13th century, is that of Kievan Rus'; their works were written in Church Slavonic. The earliest works of the Kievan period (10th century and following) were the historical annals: "Povist vremennykh lit" ("Tale of Bygone Years"), the Hypatian (Kievan) chronicle, and the Galician-Volhynian chronicle. The 12th-century "Slovo о polky Ihorevi" ("The Song of Igor's Campaign") is a unique historical epic, the most prominent piece of literary heritage of Kievan Rus'. Sermons, tales, and lives of the saints were the major genres. The major authors of this period were the chronicler Nestor, the sermon writers Ilarion of Kiev, Cyril of Turov, and Prince Volodymyr (Vladimir) II Monomakh.
After the Mongol destruction of Kievan Rus in the 13th century, literary activity in Ukraine declined. A revival began in the late 16th century with the introduction of printing, the Reformation ferment, and the advance of the Counter-Reformation into Polish-dominated Ukrainian lands. The Union of Brest-Litovsk (1596), which united several million Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox believers with Rome, stimulated an exceedingly.

42.Hrabianka, Hryhorii [Hrabjanka, Hryhorij], 1686–1737/1738. A Cossack officer and historian. He held various offices in Hadiach regiment: judge (1717–23), quartermaster (1726–30), and colonel (1730–8). For signing and delivering the Kolomak Petitions he was imprisoned from 1723
показати повністю..42.HRABIANKA, HRYHORII [HRABJANKA, HRYHORIJ], 1686–1737/1738. A Cossack officer and historian. He held various offices in Hadiach regiment: judge (1717–23), quartermaster (1726–30), and colonel (1730–8). For signing and delivering the Kolomak Petitions he was imprisoned from 1723 to 1725 in Saint Petersburg. He died in a campaign against the Crimean Tatars during the Russo-Turkish wars. Hrabianka is the author of Diistviia prezil’noi i ot nachala poliakov krvavshoi nebyvaloi brani Bohdana Khmelnytskoho, hetmana Zaporozhskoho s poliaky... (The Events of the Most Bitter and the Most Bloody War since the Origin of the Poles between Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Zaporozhian Hetman, and the Poles..., 1710). This work presents the history of Ukraine from ancient times to 1709; almost half of it deals with the Cossack-Polish War of 1648–57. Hrabianka used various official documents, eyewitness accounts, chronicles, the Sinopsis of 1674, the writings of M. Kromer, Marcin Bielski, Maciej Stryjkowski, A. Guagnini, W. Kochowski, S. von Pufendorf, and other works. His chronicle is inspired by the idea of Ukrainian Cossack autonomism. He condemns those Russian voivodes who restricted Ukraine's political rights. The work is known from numerous 18th-century transcriptions. It was published in 1793 in an abridged version by Fedir Tumansky in Rossiiskii magazin and in 1854, using six different copies, by the Kyiv Archeographic Commission. The censored parts of the latter version were later published in Kievskaia starina, vol 47 (1894). Some scholars—Symon Narizhny, for example—expressed doubts about Hrabianka's authorship of the chronicle.
Three chronicles deserve special mention: the anonymous Samovydets Chronicle, which begins with the Khmelnytsky uprising and ends in 1702; the Hryhorii Hrabianka Chronicle (1710), which concentrates on the Khmelnytsky period but begins in antiquity and ends at the beginning of the 18th century; and the Samiilo Velychko chronicle, completed after 1720.

43.Prokopovych, Teofan [Prokopovyč] (secular name: Eleazar), b 18 June 1681 in Kyiv, d 19 September 1736 in Saint Petersburg. Orthodox archbishop, writer, scholar, and philosopher. He graduated from the Kyivan Mohyla Academy in 1696 and continued his education in Lithuania, Polan
показати повністю..43.PROKOPOVYCH, TEOFAN [PROKOPOVYČ] (SECULAR NAME: ELEAZAR), B 18 JUNE 1681 IN KYIV, D 19 SEPTEMBER 1736 IN SAINT PETERSBURG. Orthodox archbishop, writer, scholar, and philosopher. He graduated from the Kyivan Mohyla Academy in 1696 and continued his education in Lithuania, Poland, and at the Saint Athanasius Greek College in Rome. In 1704 he returned to the Mohyla Academy to teach poetics, rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. He also served as prefect from 1708 and rector in 1711–16. He gained prominence as a writer and as a supporter of Hetman Ivan Mazepa. His most famous work, Vladimir, is dedicated to the hetman, whom he depicted as the figure of the Grand Prince of Kyiv. Prokopovych also praised Mazepa in his sermons and propounded Kyiv as the second Jerusalem. Following Mazepa's unsuccessful revolt against Tsar Peter I in 1709, however, Prokopovych denounced him and expressed his complete allegiance to Peter. He participated in the campaign to vilify Mazepa, calling him ‘the one filled with the Devil's spirit’ and ‘the new Judas.’ From then he became a favorite of Peter's and was rewarded with several promotions. He was called to Saint Petersburg to be a preacher and adviser to the tsar, was consecrated bishop (1718) and then archbishop (1720) of Pskov, was appointed vice-president of the new Holy Synod in 1721, and finally was made archbishop of Novgorod in 1725.
In the 1720s Prokopovych played a crucial role in the reform of the Russian Orthodox church. He supported the liquidation of the position of patriarch and the creation of the Holy Synod under the direct authority of the tsar. In 1721 he wrote the Dukhovnyi reglament, a reform statute under which the church was transformed into a state bureaucracy. He was also one of the major theorists of Russian autocracy. These positions brought him into conflict with the traditional church establishment and the boyars, who succeeded in isolating him from Russian political and cultural life after Peter's death.
Prokopovych's most notable contribution to Ukrainian literature was the drama Vladimir (1705). Although filled with Old Church Slavonic expressions, it is innovative in its use of dialogue and varied patterns of verse. His other poetic works include a panegyric on the Battle of Poltava in Ukrainian, German, and Latin; various elegies; and other works. He wrote an authoritative textbook on poetics, De arte poetica..., which was influenced more by classical poetics than by prevailing baroque theory. In this he introduced the use of the hexameter and developed the epigram and other poetic forms. After his departure to Saint Petersburg, Prokopovych lost contact with Ukrainian literary development. His subsequent works were all in Russian and often devoted to praising Peter I and his imperial reforms.
He wrote many theological works in Latin and Old Church Slavonic. His theology showed the influence of Protestant theologians and his conscious departure from the Catholic influences that earlier predominated at the academy. His Philosophia peripatetica is a philosophical text that embraces logic, natural philosophy, mathematics, and ethics. In it he set out the ideas of Descartes, Locke, Bacon, Hobbes, and Spinoza and supported the theories of Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus. He also introduced the teaching of mathematics and geometry into the curriculum of the Kyivan Academy. His text on rhetoric(1979), criticized the baroque style in speeches, sermons, and panegyrics and argued for the dominance of content over form.
Most of Prokopovych's historical writings deal with the reign of Peter I. The most important of these is Istoriia imperatora Petra Velikogo ot rozhdeniia ego do Poltavskoi batalii.

44. H.Scovoroda in Ukrainian culture
Born Nov. 22 (Dec. 3), 1722, in the village of Chernukhi, Poltava Province; died Oct. 29 (Nov. 9), 1794, in the village of Ivanovka (now Skovoro-dinovka, Kharkov Oblast). Ukrainian philosopher, poet, and pedagogue.
Skovoroda was closel
показать полностью..44. H.SCOVORODA IN UKRAINIAN CULTURE
Born Nov. 22 (Dec. 3), 1722, in the village of Chernukhi, Poltava Province; died Oct. 29 (Nov. 9), 1794, in the village of Ivanovka (now Skovoro-dinovka, Kharkov Oblast). Ukrainian philosopher, poet, and pedagogue.
Skovoroda was closely associated with the traditions of democratic Ukrainian culture, from which he drew the models for his popular anticlerical satire. In his role as a teacher of the peasants he held a critical attitude not only toward feudal ideology but also toward early bourgeois ideology with its cult of material satisfaction and success.

Skovoroda’s philosophical teachings as set forth in his dialogues and treatises are based on the idea of three worlds: the macrocosm, or universe; the microcosm, or man; and a symbolic reality. The symbolic world links together the macrocosm and the microcosm, which are ideally reflected in it. The most perfect example of this third world, according to Skovoroda, is the Bible. Each of the three worlds consists of two “natures” (natury): the visible nature—creation (tvar), or the created world—and the invisible nature—god.
Skovoroda’s social and pedagogical views are based on the doctrine of a man’s nature (srodnost’) and natural occupation. Self-knowledge reveals the specific kind of activity, whether physical or spiritual, that is in each person’s nature. To be truly happy, a man must come to know his nature. According to Skovoroda, the ideal of a perfect human society can be achieved only through the spiritual preparation of the individual. Since not everyone is capable of the creative effort of self-knowledge, the problem of social pedagogy arises. Skovoroda’s ideal pedagogue is reminiscent of Socrates’ image of the midwife. The task of the teacher does not consist in instilling something in the student or in intellectual dictation but rather in calmly and tactfully helping him to discover his true vocation—the vocation to which his nature disposes him.

Skovoroda composed a collection of prose fables and a collection of poems called The Garden of Divine Songs, in which the traditions of old Ukrainian lyric songs predominate. His literary manner is characterized by expressive imagery, by striking transitions from the passionate to the humorous or the grotesque, and by an abundance of metaphors, antitheses, recurring images, and symbols. The democratic spirit of his style and the polyphonic dialogue form he used to express his ideas contributed to the wide popularity of the works and personality of the wandering philosopher during his lifetime. The critical themes and unique stylistic characteristics of Skovoroda’s poetry and fables were used and developed in later Ukrainian literature.

45. Cultural meaning of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment has been defined in many different ways, but at its broadest was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of th
показать полностью..45. CULTURAL MEANING OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Enlightenment has been defined in many different ways, but at its broadest was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of thought over dogma, blind faith and superstition. Logic wasn’t a new invention, having been used by the ancient Greeks, but it was now included in a worldview which argued that empirical observation and the examination of human life could reveal the truth behind human society and self, as well as the universe. All were deemed to be rational and understandable. The Enlightenment held that there could be a science of man, and that the history of mankind was one of progress, which could be continued with the right thinking.
The spearhead of the Enlightenment was a body of well connected writers and thinkers from across Europe and North America who became known as the philosophes, which is the French for philosophers. These leading thinkers formulated, spread and debated the Enlightenment in works including, arguably the dominant text of the period, the Encyclopédie.

Where historians once believed that the philosophes were the sole carriers of Enlightenment thought, they now generally accept that they were merely the vocal tip of a much more widespread intellectual awakening among the middle and upper classes, turning them into a new social force. These were professionals such as lawyers and administrators, office holders, higher clergy and landed aristocracy, and it was these who read the many volumes of Enlightenment writing, including the Encyclopédie and soaked up their thinking.

46
RUSSIFICATION OF THE “LITTLE RUSSIANS”
Russian rule on Ukrainian lands was, for most Ukrainians, repressive. The Russian tsar was the supreme authority, dominating both secular governmental institutions. Most Ukrainian were enserfed peasants, tied to the land and to the
показать полностью..46.RUSSIFICATION OF THE “LITTLE RUSSIANS”
Russian rule on Ukrainian lands was, for most Ukrainians, repressive. The Russian tsar was the supreme authority, dominating both secular governmental institutions. Most Ukrainian were enserfed peasants, tied to the land and to the labor demands imposed on them by landlords. Whereas many landlords grew rich on the grain trade, most peasants lived in squalid conditions. Illiteracy rates were high; health provisions were minimal.
Russian rule, however, also had an important cultural component. Because the “Little Russians” were linguistically and culturally similar to the “Great Russians,” the government viewed Ukraine as essentially Russian land. In Ukraine started russification.
Russification took on various forms. The most obvious indicator that some of the “Little Russians” were not properly Russian was that they attended non-Orthodox churches. This was especially true in Right Bank Ukraine, which had been under Polish-Lithuanian rule. Initially, the Russians displayed some tolerance toward the Greek Catholic Church, but, after a Polish revolt in 1830–31 that had some support by the Greek Catholic hierarchy, the Russian authorities took a dimmer view on its activities. In 1839, the Greek Catholic Church was banned on Russian territory.
Russian authorities, however, did not force all inhabitants to profess Christian Orthodoxy.
Education provided another means for Russian authorities to “Russify” the population. The first university in modern Ukraine was established in Kharkiv in 1805 and a university was established in Kiev in 1834. Both were Russian-language institutions. Primary education was also in Russian, which meant that Polish-language schools on Right Bank Ukraine were closed. This hurt Ukrainians because they could not afford to educate their children at home instead. As a consequence, literacy rates under Russian rule actually fell. Nevertheless, there was no comprehensive program to remake the Ukrainian peasant masses into Russians.
As for the elite, including vestiges of the Cossack nobility, andowners, bureaucrats, Orthodox Church officials, musicians, painters, and writers were able to succeed in the Russian Empire, they did so as part of the Russian establishment. In the words of Andrew Wilson, Russification had sucked Ukraine dry, leaving it, in the first part of the nineteenth century, a “cultural backwater.”

47
OLD UKRAINIAN TRADITION: BARDS: KOBZARS, BANDURYSTS, AND LIRNYKS
The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heri
показать полностью..47.OLD UKRAINIAN TRADITION: BARDS: KOBZARS, BANDURYSTS, AND LIRNYKS
The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heritage. While kobzars first emerged in Kyivan Rus', bandurysts and lirnyks appeared and became popular in the 15th century. Kobzars (eg, Churylo and Tarashko) often lived at the Zaporozhian Sich and accompanied the Cossacks on military campaigns. The epic songs they performed served to raise the morale of the Cossack army in times of war.
Kobzars - Wandering folk bards who performed a large repertoire of epic-historical, religious, and folk songs while playing a kobza or bandura.
Bandura. A Ukrainian musical instrument similar in construction and appearance to a lute. The bandura differs from other lutelike instruments by the presence of the prystrunky, on which the melody is performed (the bunty are used only for accompaniment), and the absence of frets. Each string produces only one note.
The oldest record of a bandura-like instrument in Ukraine is an 11th-century fresco of court musicians (skomorokhy) in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. This lute-like instrument is probably the ancestor of the bandura and the kobza. The two instruments were related, but distinct. The kobza was smaller in size and had fewer strings, but these were fretted. During the 17th and 18th century the bandura was very popular at the Zaporozhian Sich, among the common people, and at the gentry manors.

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IMPERIAL ARTS: ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE IN UKRAINE
In some ways, rococo represented the continuation and conclusion of the baroque period in art and architecture. Rococo developed at first in a decorative art in the early 18th century in France. Lighter designs, decorative
показать полностью..48.IMPERIAL ARTS: ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE IN UKRAINE
In some ways, rococo represented the continuation and conclusion of the baroque period in art and architecture. Rococo developed at first in a decorative art in the early 18th century in France. Lighter designs, decorative motifs with many shell forms and natural patterns and small-scale sculpture replaced the flamboyant forms of the baroque architecture. In Ukraine, where baroque influences were particularly strong and long-lasting, rococo and baroque architectural influences were often intermingled. Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture can be seen particularly in iconostases, where carved shell motifs and interlace patterns replaced grapevines and acanthus foliage. Rastrelli and Meretyn were among the most important rococo architects in Ukraine
Rococo - architectural and decorative style that emerged in France in the early 18th century. It replaced the plasticity of the baroque and was characterized by light, graceful decoration, trivial subject matter, and small-scale sculpture. In decoration the open shell motif became popular. Rococo was used in church architecture throughout Ukraine. Examples of the rococo style in Ukraine are Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv; the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God, Chernihiv gubernia; the Roman Catholic churches of the Dominican order in Lviv and Ternopil; Saint George's Cathedral (1745–70) in Lviv and other.
Saint Andrew's Church - A masterpiece of rococo architecture in Kyiv. It was designed for Empress Elizabeth I by Rastrelli. The church has a central dome flanked by four slender towers topped with small cupolas.
Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture can be seen particularly in iconostases. In religious painting the rococo style had little impact because of the strong hold of the baroque.

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Dmitry Levitzky (May 1735 – April 17, 1822). The most prominent portraitist of the classicist era in the Russian Empire. He acquired his basic training from his father and helped him do engravings for the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press. In 1753–6 he helped his father and Alek
показать полностью..50. DMITRY LEVITZKY (MAY 1735 – APRIL 17, 1822). The most prominent portraitist of the classicist era in the Russian Empire. He acquired his basic training from his father and helped him do engravings for the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press. In 1753–6 he helped his father and Aleksii Antropov decorate Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv. From 1758 to 1761 he worked in Saint Petersburg, where he studied with Antropov and G. Valeriani. From 1762, while living in Moscow he was a portraitist in great demand among the Russian aristocracy. He moved to Saint Petersburg in 1769, and he won the highest award at the summer exhibition in 1770 held by the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts and was elected a member of the academy. A teacher of portraiture at the academy (1771–88), he retired to Ukraine in 1788, but in 1795 he returned to Saint Petersburg to become portraitist at the imperial court. Levytsky created a school of portrait painting. Many Ukrainian and Russian portraitists studied with Levytsky at the academy, and his works influenced Volodymyr Borovykovsky.
Volodymyr Borovykovsky (July 24 1757 - April 6 1825) was born in Saint Petersburg. Iconographer and portrait painter, son of Luka Borovyk who was a Cossack fellow of the banner and an iconographer. Borovykovsky was trained in art by his father and uncle and then in 1788 went to study portrait painting under Dmytro Levytsky at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts. In 1793 he became an academician there. Until 1787 Borovykovsky lived and worked in Ukraine. During his career he painted many churches, icons, and iconostases, only some of which have been preserved: the icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary, and other.
Borovykovsky painted about 160 portraits, among them Ukrainian public figures. At the beginning of the 1790s Borovykovsky began to paint miniatures and portraits of women in the Ukrainian iconographic style. Adhering to the spirit of classicism, he promoted West European traditions through his art. The largest number of Borovykovsky's works can be found in the museums of Saint Petersburg and Moscow. In Ukraine they can be seen in the museums of Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Poltava. Other Ukrainian painters of Classicism its Kotliarevsky, Ivan Biletsky-Nosenko, Pavlo Kvitka-Osnovianenko, Hryhorii Losenko, Antin Kapnist, Vasyl.

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Classicism.
Literature.
Also important in ending the Cossack period in Ukrainian literature was the rise of classicism in the literature of the West. The influence of classicism began to be felt in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. Of the pr
показать полностью..51. CLASSICISM. LITERATURE.
Also important in ending the Cossack period in Ukrainian literature was the rise of classicism in the literature of the West. The influence of classicism began to be felt in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. Of the prescriptive tenets of classicism the most important for the further development of Ukrainian literature was that which defined the three styles of literary writing, high, middle, and low. Classicism recognized different registers of language: only odes, tragedies, and scholarly writings were written in the high style; drama and prose were relegated to the middle style; and comedy, burlesque, and travesty were written in the low style.
Classicism appeared in Ukraine in the mid-18th century. In its broad sense the term refers to any kind of imitation of classical poetry; in its narrow sense, to a literary movement that arose in opposition to the baroque and worked out its own poetic norms, which included clarity of expression, the striving for ideal beauty, and strict adherence to certain rules or the imitation of certain models. Its main examples are the travesties or parodies of N. Boileau and classical models. Although they are recognized by classicist poetics, travesties are considered to belong to a ‘low’ genre.

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Ivan Kotliarevsky (9 September 1769 in Poltava - 10 November 1838 in Poltava). Poet and playwright; the ‘founder’ of modern Ukrainian literature. After studying at the Poltava Theological Seminary (1780–9), he worked as a tutor at rural gentry estates, where he became acqu
показать полностью..52. IVAN KOTLIAREVSKY (9 SEPTEMBER 1769 IN POLTAVA - 10 NOVEMBER 1838 IN POLTAVA). Poet and playwright; the ‘founder’ of modern Ukrainian literature. After studying at the Poltava Theological Seminary (1780–9), he worked as a tutor at rural gentry estates, where he became acquainted with folk life and the peasant vernacular, and then served in the Russian army (1796–1808). In 1810 he became the trustee of an institution for the education of children of impoverished nobles. He helped stage theatrical productions at the Poltava governor-general's residence and was the artistic director of the Poltava Free Theater (1812–21). From 1827 to 1835 he directed several philanthropic agencies.
Kotliarevsky's greatest literary work is his travesty of Virgil's Aeneid, Eneïda, which he began writing in 1794. Publication of its first three parts in Saint Petersburg in 1798 was funded by Maksym Parpura. Part four appeared in 1809. Kotliarevsky finished parts five and six around 1820, but the first full edition of the work (with a glossary) was published only after his death, in Kharkiv in 1842.
Eneïda was written at a time when popular memory of the Cossack Hetmanate was still alive and the oppression of tsarist serfdom in Ukraine was at its height. Kotliarevsky's broad satire of the mores of the social estates during these two distinct ages, combined with the in-vogue use of ethnographic detail and with racy, colorful, colloquial Ukrainian, ensured his work's great popularity among his contemporaries. It spawned several imitations and began the process by which the Ukrainian vernacular acquired the status of a literary language, thereby supplanting the use of older, bookish linguistic forms.
Kotliarevsky's operetta Natalka Poltavka and vaudeville Moskal’-charivnyk were landmarks in the development of Ukrainian theater. Written ca 1819, they were first published in vols 1 (1838) and 2 (1841) of the almanac Ukrainskii sbornik. As a playwright, Kotliarevsky combined the intermede tradition with his knowledge of Ukrainian folkways and folklore.