Correlation between the world culture, ethnoculture, and national culture

SLAVIC CALENDAR AND FESTIVALS

The year was apparently lunar and began in early March, similar to other Indo-European cultures whose old calendar systems are better known to us. The names for the last night of the old year and the first day of the new year are reconstructed as Velja Noc (*Velja Notj)/Velik Dan (Velikŭ dĭnĭ) (Great Night/Great Day). After Christianization, these names were probably passed onto Easter. In Slavic countries belonging to Orthodox Churches, Easter is known as Velik Dan/Great Day, whilst amongst Catholic Slavs, it is known as Velika Noc/Great Night. The names blend nicely with the translation of the Greek Megale Evthomada, Great Week, the Christian term for the week in which Easter falls. In pagan times, however, this was a holiday probably quite like Halloween. Certain people (shamans) donned grotesque masks and coats of sheep wool, roaming around the villages, as during the Great Night, it was believed, spirits of dead ancestors travelled across the land, entering villages and houses to celebrate the new year with their living relatives. Consequently, the deity of the last day of the year was probably Veles, god of the Underworld.

Folk celebrations of various Christian festivals and popular beliefs in various saints. It is, for instance, quite clear that a popular saint in many Slavic countries, St Elijah the Thunderer, is a replacement of old thunder-god Perun. Likewise, traces of ancient deities can also be found in cults of many other saints, such as St Mary, St Vitus, St George, St Blaise and St Nicholas, and it is also obvious that various folk celebrations, such as the spring feast of Jare or Jurjevo and the summer feast of Ivanje or Ivan Kupala, both very loosely associated with Christian holidays, are abundant with pre-Christian elements. These beliefs have considerable religious and sacral significance to the people still performing them. The problem is, of course, that the elements of pre-Christian religion are hopelessly mixed into popular Christianity.

COSMOLOGY IN SLAVIC MYTHOLOGY

Myth was the first form of human cultural activity. Myth explained natural phenomena, the origins of the world and humans. Mythological consciousness was the first integrating form of culture.Mythology of Indo-European peoples, the main population of Ukrainian lands, contained some features that were common for all of them. The World Tree was one of the most symbols of Indo-Europeans. The World Tree was an oak tree, which symbolized three levels of the universe: its crown represented the sky, the realm of heavenly deities; its roots represented the underworld, the realm of the dead; and the trunk was the mid of the universe and represented the world of people and nature. Also Indo-Europeans had the cult of Mother-Goddess and supported the idea of bilateral arrangement of the world (good-evil, black-white, beauty-ugly).

ORIGINS OF KYIVAN RUS’

The question of the origins of Kyivan Rus’ still produces controversy among historians. The oldest, or Normanist theory rests mainly on a literal interpretation of the Primary Chronicle and stresses the role of the Varangians as the first leaders and organizers of the state. Ukrainian historians, beginning with Mykhailo Maksymovych and followed by Mykola Kostomarov, Volodymyr Antonovych, Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Dmytro Bahalii, Dmytro Doroshenko, Mykola Chubaty, and others, have generally downplayed the Varangian influence on the formation of Rus’. The Soviet historiography categorically rejected the Normanist theory, considering it bourgeois.

The issue of the nationality of the inhabitants of the Kyivan state is also a matter of continuing controversy. The discussion was initiated by the Russian historian Mikhail Pogodin, who claimed that the original inhabitants of contemporary Ukraine fled north under pressure from the Mongols, and that they later became the modern Russian nation. The Ukrainians, meanwhile, arrived much later from somewhere in the Carpathian Mountains. Pogodin's views were expanded on by the philologist Aleksei Sobolevsky. This theory was disputed by Ukrainian historians such as Mykhailo Maksymovych, Mykola Dashkevych, Pavlo Zhytetsky, and Ahatanhel Krymsky. Mykhailo Hrushevsky sought to demonstrate that Ukrainians were autochthonous in their territories, and that the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia was the successor to the Kyivan state. Hrushevsky's theories were for the most part adopted by Ukrainian historians and by some others. Because these theories did not correspond to the political objectives of the Soviet leadership, a panel of historians was commissioned in the 1930s by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to draw up a new historical schema of Eastern Europe; its basic premise was that Kyivan Rus’ had been founded by a single old-Rus’ nationality, out of which Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusians developed in the 14th and 15th centuries. This theory was given official approbation with the publication of Tezy pro 300-richchia vozz'iednannia Ukraïny z Rosiieiu, 1654–1954 (Theses about the 300th Anniversary of the Reunification of Ukraine with Russia, 1954.

LITERATURE OF KYIVAN RUS’

The development of original literature in Kyivan Rus' was based on both a rich folk oral tradition and a dissemination of translated religious texts. The oldest and most noted Kyivan didactic work is ‘A Sermon on Law and Grace' (1050) by Metropolitan Ilarion, the first native metropolitan of Kyiv. Modeled on translated hagiographies, lives of Saint Anthony of the Caves, Saint Volodymyr the Great, Saint Princess Olha, and others were written and collected in the Kyivan Cave Patericon, the most remarkable collection of lives in the Kyivan period. Also noteworthy are the early chronicles, which are unique for their wealth of information and their blending of fact and fiction, written sources and eyewitness accounts. Quite prevalent were apocryphal writings as well as translated tales. Also popular was the first travelogue' by Hegumen Danylo. The most unusual and outstanding monument of old Ukrainian literature, however, is the secular epic poem Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign, ca 1187).

ARCHITECTURE OF KYIVAN RUS’

The Kyivan Cave Monastery is one of the most important spiritual and cultural centres in the history of the Ukrainian people. Founded by Saint Anthony of the Caves in the mid-11th century, the monastery soon became the largest religious and cultural center in Kyivan Rus'.

Kyivan Cave Monastery (Kyievo-Pecherska Lavra) was founded by Saint Anthony of the Caves in the mid-11th century near the village of Berestove in a cave that the future metropolitan of Kyiv, Ilarion, had excavated and lived in until 1051. The first monks excavated more caves and built a church above them. uilding fortifications and churches; some even became monks. Many of the monks were from the educated, upper strata, and the monastery soon became the largest religious and cultural center in Kyivan Rus’. Twenty of its monks became bishops in the 12th and 13th centuries. Saint Theodosius's ‘Teachings,’ Nestor the Chronicler's ‘Story about Borys and Hlib,’ ‘Life of Theodosius of the Caves,’ Povist’ vremennykh lit (Tale of Bygone Years), and the Kyivan Cave Patericon were written there. Foreign works were translated, and books were transcribed and illuminated. Architecture and religious art (icons, mosaics, frescoes)—the works of Master Olimpii, Deacon Hryhorii, and others—developed there. Many folk tales and legends eventually arose about its saintly figures and the miraculous construction of its main church.

The monastery was sacked several times, particularly in 1096 by the Cumans, in 1169 by Prince Andrei Bogoliubskii of Vladimir-Suzdal, in 1203 by Prince Riuryk (Vasylii) Rostyslavych and the Chernihiv princes, and in 1240 by the Mongol Batu Khan. Each time it was rebuilt, new churches were erected, and the underground tunnels of caves and catacombs expanded. After a period of non-activity it was rebuilt in 1470 by Prince Semen Olelkovych, but in 1482 the Tatars burned it down. It was eventually again rebuilt, and in the late 16th century it received stauropegion status from the Patriarch of Constantinople, freeing it from the control of the local metropolitan. By that time consisting of six cloisters, the monastic complex was designated a lavra.

Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. The main church of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Built in 1073–8 at the initiative of Saint Theodosius of the Caves during the hegumenship of Stefan of Kyiv and funded by Prince Sviatoslav II Yaroslavych. The cathedral consisted basically of one story built on a cruciform plan with a cupola supported by six columns. At the end of the 11th century many additions to the cathedral were built, including Saint John's Baptistry in the form of a small church on the north side.

ICONOGRAPHY IN KYIVAN RUS’

An image depicting a holy personage or scene in the stylized Byzantine manner, and venerated in the Eastern Christian churches. The image can be executed in different media; hence, the term ‘icon’ can be applied to mural paintings, frescoes, or mosaics, tapestries or embroideries, enamels, and low reliefs carved in marble, ivory, or stone or cast in metal.. The earliest technique of icon painting was encaustic, but the traditional and most common technique is tempera. The paint—an emulsion of mineral pigments (ochers, siennas, umbers, or green earth), egg yolk, and water—is applied with a brush to a panel prepared in a special way. The panel of well-dried linden, birch, poplar, alder, pine, or cypress is 3–4 cm thick. To prevent warping it is reinforced with two hardwood slats inserted in grooves on the reverse side. The face side is slightly hollowed to obtain a concave surface surrounded by a protective border, usually 3 cm wide and scored to provide a better gluing base. It is then covered with canvas, to which several layers of gesso (plaster or powdered alabaster mixed with fish glue) are applied. When an even, smooth surface has been produced, an outline of the painting is traced on it with charcoal or scratched into it with a needle. Gold leaf is fixed to designated areas before painting begins. The paint is applied in successive layers from dark to light tones; then the figures are outlined and, finally, certain areas are highlighted with whiting. After drying, the painting is covered with a special varnish consisting of linseed oil and crystalline resins to protect it from dust and humidity. The varnish imparts depth and richness to the pale tones of tempera but, eventually, becomes dark with dirt. Traditionally cleaned with a vinegar and ammonia solution, the varnish is now treated with chemical solutions that are capable of restoring the original brilliance and depth to the colors.

History. With the introduction of Christianity in the 10th century, Byzantine icons and icon painters began to be imported into Ukraine. No Kyivan icons from the 11th century, and only a few from the 12th, have survived to our day. The oldest surviving masterpieces of the Kyiv school include the Mother of God Great Panagia, a large icon done probably by Master Olimpii and donated by Volodymyr Monomakh to a church in Rostov; Saint Demetrius of Thessalonica, a 12th-century icon that belonged to the Dormition Church in Dmitrov; Saint Nicholas with Saints on the Borders (turn of the 12th century); The Mother of God of the Caves or The Svensk Mother of God, a late 13th-century copy of an earlier Kyivan icon done for Prince Roman Mstyslavych; and Ihor's Mother of God, a 13th-century work that disappeared from the Kyivan Cave Monastery during the Second World War. There are also a number of icons that belong to the Kyiv tradition of icon painting, but may have been produced in centers other than Kyiv. The most important of these are works that were probably produced by the Novgorod the Great school according to Kyivan models: The Ustiug Annunciation (12th century), The Archangel Gabriel or The Angel with Golden Hair (12th), and Saints Borys and Hlib (12th–13th). The famous Vyshhorod Mother of God, later known as The Vladimir Mother of God, is not a Kyivan but a Greek icon that was brought in 1134 from Constantinople to Vyshhorod, and taken to Vladimir by Andrei Bogoliubskii in 1155.

Education

Brotherhood schools. Schools founded by religious brotherhoods for the purposes of counteracting the denationalizing influence of Catholic (Jesuit) and Protestant schools and of preserving the Orthodox faith began to appear in the 1580s. The first school was established in 1586 by the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The school served as a model for other brotherhood schools in various towns of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of them in Ukraine and Belarus.The most prominent schools were the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School.

Then the schools began to adopt the structure and curriculum of the Jesuit schools, using Latin as the primary language, particularly those schools that modeled themselves on the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. Ukrainian was used only for examination purposes and, from 1645, for teaching the catechism. The curriculum of most of the brotherhood schools provided what was accepted as a secondary education in those times: classical languages, dialectics, rhetoric, poetics, homiletics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (church singing). Some schools taught Orthodox theology and Catholic theology (for the purpose of polemics). Brotherhood schools were open to various social strata. Students were judged not by lineage, but by achievement (in contrast to Jesuit schools). Discipline in the schools was strict, and physical punishment was used. Orphans and poor students lived in bursas and student residences. Lecturers were required to set an example by their behavior and to have pedagogical training. Brotherhood schools made a significant contribution to the growth of religious and national consciousness and the development of Ukrainian culture. They published textbooks, particularly language textbooks. The Czech educator J.A. Comenius (Komenský) derived many of the ideas in his Didactica Magna (1628–32) from the practices of the brotherhood schools.

Brotherhoods’ activity

Initially the brotherhoods engaged only in religious and charitable activities. They maintained churches and sometimes assumed financial responsibility for them, ensured that church services, in particular parish feasts, were celebrated in a ceremonious way, arranged ritual dinners for their members, collected money, helped the indigent and the sick, and organized hospitals. Since these religious and charitable activities of the brotherhoods left no visible traces, some historians, such as Kost Huslysty and Yaroslav Isaievych, do not consider the early period of the brotherhoods as being part of their history.

The brotherhoods began to play a historical role in the second half of the 16th and at the beginning of the 17th century. In this period they assumed the task of defending the Orthodox faith and Ukrainian nationality by counteracting Catholic and particularly Jesuit expansionism, Polonization, and later conversion to the Uniate church.

Their interference in clerical affairs was one of the reasons for the favorable attitude towards the Church Union of Berestia among the Orthodox bishops. The brotherhoods brought about a revival in the life of the church by promoting cultural and educational activity. They founded brotherhood schools, printing presses, and libraries. The resulting cultural-religious movement found its literary expression in polemical literature. The brotherhoods also participated in civic and political life. They sent representatives to church councils and to the Sejm in Warsaw and maintained ties with the Cossacks.

KYIVAN MOHYLA ACADEMY

The leading center of higher education in 17th- and 18th-century Ukraine, which exerted a significant intellectual influence over the entire Orthodox world at the time. Established in 1632 by Petro Mohyla through the merger of the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School (est 1631 by Mohyla), the new school was conceived by its founder as an academy, ie, an institution of higher learning offering philosophy and theology courses and supervising a network of secondary schools. Completing the Orthodox school system, it was to compete on an equal footing with Polish academies run by the Jesuits. Fearing such competition, King Władysław IV Vasa granted the school the status of a mere college or secondary school, and prohibited it from teaching philosophy and theology. It was only in 1694 that the Kyivan Mohyla College was granted the full privileges of an academy, and only in 1701 that it was recognized officially as an academy by Peter I.

37.The invention of movable type and printing presses in Germany around 1450 had a tremendous and lasting influence on the cultural, social, religious, and scientific development of Europe. As the printing technologies spread throughout the continent and allowed for a quicker and
показати повністю..37.THE INVENTION OF MOVABLE TYPE AND PRINTING PRESSES IN GERMANY AROUND 1450 HAD A TREMENDOUS AND LASTING INFLUENCE ON THE CULTURAL, SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS, AND SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE. As the printing technologies spread throughout the continent and allowed for a quicker and wider dissemination of knowledge, they became a major catalyst for both the Reformation and the later scientific revolution. Printed books represented the key factor in the spread of education and literacy. In Ukraine, the first printing press was founded by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) in Lviv in 1573. Its equipment and assets were used to found the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press (1591-1788), which played a key role in the history of early Ukrainian printing. Printing in Volhynia began after Fedorovych entered the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky and founded what became the important Ostrih Press (1577-1612). Founded in the early 17th century the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press became the most important center of printing and engraving in Ukraine until the mid 19th century; it played a crucial role in raising the level of education and culture and in aiding the Orthodox Ukrainians to defend themselves against the inroads of Polonization and Catholicism...
The first printing press on Ukrainian ethnic territory was founded by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) in Lviv (1573–4). Its equipment and assets were used to found the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press (1591–1788), which played a key role in the history of early Ukrainian printing. Thereafter Lviv remained a major printing center. Established there were Polish (1592–1602, 1670–3, 1684–93), Calvinist (1608–11), and Armenian (1616–18) presses; Cyrillic presses owned by Y. Sheliha (1618–20, 1626–36), Mykhailo Slozka (1638–67), Bishop Arsenii Zhelyborsky (1644–6), and Bishop Yosyf Shumliansky at Saint George's Cathedral (1687–8); a press at the Polish Jesuit college (1642–1773); and the Polish presses of P. Golczewski (1735–51), Ivan Fylypovych (1753–67), and the Szlichtyn family (1755–85). Under Austrian rule the Piller family press (1772 to 19th century) printed books in Latin, Gothic, Hebrew, Greek, and Cyrillic. Printing in Volhynia began after Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) entered the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky and founded what became the important Ostrih Press (1577–1612). Later the important Pochaiv Monastery Press (1730–1918) was founded.
In Right-Bank Ukraine the Polish Protestant Panivtsi Press (1608–11) functioned briefly in Podilia. In Kyiv, printing began with the founding of the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press (1615–1918). It remained the largest printing press in Ukraine until the mid-19th century. Other presses in Kyiv were founded by Tymofii Verbytsky (1624–8) and S. Sobol (1628–31). In 1787 a printing press was founded at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy; later it became the press of the Kyiv Theological Left-Bank Ukraine the first printing presses were those of Kyrylo Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon in Chernihiv (1646) and Archbishop Lazar Baranovych in Novhorod-Siverskyi (1674–9).
Fedorovych (Fedorov), Ivan [Fedorovyč], b ca 1525, d 16 December 1583 in Lviv. Fedorovych was the founder of book printing and book publishing in Russia and Ukraine. He was deacon of Saint Nicholas Gostunsky Church in Moscow, where, from 1553, he oversaw the construction of a printing house commissioned by Tsar Ivan IV. In 1564–5 Fedorovych and the Belarusian P. Mstsislavets published in Moscow several liturgical works in Church Slavonic. This technical innovation created competition for the Muscovite scribes, who persecuted Fedorovych and Mstsislavets and finally caused them to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There they were received by the Lithuanian great hetman H. Khodkevych at his estate in Zabłudów (Zabludiv) (northern Podlachia, on the Ukrainian-Belarusian border), where they published Ievanheliie uchytel’noie (Didactic Gospel, 1569) and Psaltyr’ (Psalter, 1570). In Zabłudów, Fedorovych changed his surname from Fedorov to Fedorovych. He moved to Lviv in 1572 and resumed his work as a print.

38.Cossack Baroque church is, if anything, even more embellished. The domes are frequently even more elongated than the original Kievan model and a dome that surmounts the church is commonly surmounted by a lantern, which may be surmounted by another smaller dome, which in turn i
показати повністю..38.COSSACK BAROQUE CHURCH IS, IF ANYTHING, EVEN MORE EMBELLISHED. The domes are frequently even more elongated than the original Kievan model and a dome that surmounts the church is commonly surmounted by a lantern, which may be surmounted by another smaller dome, which in turn is always surmounted by a cross. Thus, what is created is a layering of embellishment that distinguishes it much from the original Byzantine prototypes. The Cossack Baroque style became popular during the seventeenth century when there was a revitalization of Ukrainian culture as well as religious and social institutions under the rule of the Cossack hetmans.
It was around this time that considerable damage occurred when fire broke out at Kiev’s famous Monastery of the Caves (Percherska Lavra). When the buildings were reconstructed, the result was almost like a small city made up of Cossack Baroque buildings. In the picture of the Monastery skyline, note the multiplicity of domes. The one in the foreground is particularly layered in embellishment.

The skyline of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev
Holy Trinity Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral in Winnipeg is a modern structure that takes influence from the Cossack Baroque style. It has the cross-in-square floor plan and the highly elongated and layered domes. Such domes are more pear shaped than onion shaped. Holy Trinity was completed in 1962.

Holy Trinity Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral, Winnipeg, MB
Also in Winnipeg, one finds St. Mary the Protectress Ukrainian Orthodox Sobor. The amazing thing about this church is that it was built between 1925 and 1951 by mostly volunteer labour. The two towers at the front of the church are something of a western influence; however, the treatment of the domes is particularly baroque. This type of bud dome was one of the innovations that became common during the baroque period.

St. Mary the Protectress Ukrainian Orthodox Sobor, Winnipeg, MB
The Kievan and Cossack Baroque styles can be found in various regions of Ukraine but they tend more to be located in cities and substantial towns rather than in the rural villages. Given that most Ukrainian immigrants prior to 1945 came from rural settings it is interesting that so many churches in Canada were designed with this architectural style as the influence.

39.baroque style didn't develop in a vacuum. An art style takes bits and pieces of previous works and puts new twists on them. In addition, art can't be separated from the times in which the art was created.
History of the Baroque Style
Europe in the 17th century was a tu
показати повністю..39.BAROQUE STYLE DIDN'T DEVELOP IN A VACUUM. An art style takes bits and pieces of previous works and puts new twists on them. In addition, art can't be separated from the times in which the art was created.
History of the Baroque Style
Europe in the 17th century was a tumultuous time, with one hand reaching back into the past and the other reaching towards modern times. Almost all of Europe was involved at one point or another in the 30 Years War. The English Civil War ended with the beheading of Charles I, King of England. The Dutch Revolt, which had been fought for about 80 years, finally ended in 1648.
At the same time, great strides were being made in science. Isaac Newton published the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and The Starry Messenger. Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered minute living organisms in pond water.
This was all counterbalanced by the strain being put on the Catholic Church by Protestants, science and corruption.
During the late Renaissance, artists moved into Mannerism, which was a rejection of the balance and symmetry of Renaissance art. Mannerist paintings depicted figures and backgrounds that were distorted and designed to provoke emotions.
Baroque art borrowed from both Renaissance art and Mannerism. Baroque artists sought to combine the emotion of Mannerism with the harmony and grandeur of Renaissance art.
The two early leaders of Baroque art were Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci. Among his accomplishments, Caravaggio (1573-1610) perfected chiaroscuro, the art of contrasting light and dark. Carracci (1560-1609), considered to be the father of ideal landscape, is also know for his ability to paint gestures and his fine compositions.

40.Founded ca 1576 in Ostrih, Volhynia, by a Ukrainian nobleman Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky--one of the most remarkable figures in the 16th-century Ukrainian cultural and national rebirth--the Ostih Academy was the first postsecondary learning center in the Orthodox Eastern
показати повністю..40.FOUNDED CA 1576 IN OSTRIH, VOLHYNIA, BY A UKRAINIAN NOBLEMAN PRINCE KOSTIANTYN VASYL OSTROZKY--ONE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE FIGURES IN THE 16TH-CENTURY UKRAINIAN CULTURAL AND NATIONAL REBIRTH--THE OSTIH ACADEMY WAS THE FIRST POSTSECONDARY LEARNING CENTER IN THE ORTHODOX EASTERN EUROPE. At a time when Catholicism was making inroads into Western Ukraine, the academy was a bastion of Orthodoxy and Ruthenian culture and maintained the traditional orientation toward Constantinople. Though the Ostrih Academy did not develop into a Western European-style university, as Ostrozky had hoped, it was the foremost Orthodox academy of its time. Closely associated with the Ostrih Press, the academy and the Ostrih intellectual circle had an enduring influence on pedagogical thought and the organization of schools in Ukraine and provided a model for the brotherhood schools that were later founded in Lviv, Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Vilnius, and Brest.
The curriculum consisted of Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, theology, philosophy, medicine, natural science, and the classical free studies (mathematics, astronomy, grammar, rhetoric, and logic). In addition the academy was renowned for choral singing, and developed the ostrozkyi napiv.
The first rector of the academy was the writer Herasym Smotrytsky. The instructors, many of whom had been invited from Constantinople, included the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk, the Greek Cyril Lucaris, J. Latos (a philosopher and mathematician from Cracow University), and Yov Boretsky, who later became rector of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and then metropolitan of Kyiv. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, the writer and scholar Meletii Smotrytsky, and several other prominent political and cultural leaders studied at the academy. With the founding of a rival Jesuit college in Ostrih in 1624, the academy went into decline, and by 1636 it had ceased to exist.
Baranovych, Lazar [Baranovyč], 1593–1694; according to other data, 1620–93. Ecclesiastical, political, and literary figure, professor (1650) and rector of the Kyivan Mohyla College, and archbishop of Chernihiv from 1657. He founded schools and monasteries. In 1674 he established the Novhorod-Siverskyi Press, which in 1679 was moved to Chernihiv. He defended the independence of the Ukrainian clergy from the patriarch of Moscow. His sermons, written in a baroque style, were published in Mech dukhovnyi (The Spiritual Sword, 1666) and Truby sloves propovidnykh (The Trumpets of Preaching Words, 1674). He is the author of several polemical works against Catholicism in Polish and Ukrainian; of a poetry collection in Polish, Lutnia Apollinowa (Apollo's Lute, 1671); and of a large correspondence.

41.Vyshensky, Ivan [Vyšens’kyj], b ca 1550 in Sudova Vyshnia, Galicia, d after 1620 in Mount Athos, Greece. Orthodox monk and polemicist. Biographical information on him is sparse. He passed some of his youth in Lutsk and was connected with the Ostrih Academy scholars. Ca 1576–80
показати повністю..41.VYSHENSKY, IVAN [VYŠENS’KYJ], B CA 1550 IN SUDOVA VYSHNIA, GALICIA, D AFTER 1620 IN MOUNT ATHOS, GREECE. Orthodox monk and polemicist. Biographical information on him is sparse. He passed some of his youth in Lutsk and was connected with the Ostrih Academy scholars. Ca 1576–80 he entered a monastery at Mount Athos. There are 15 known works by Vyshensky: seven epistles, six treatises, a dialogue, and a story. His most important works were directed against the Church Union of Berestia and were written in the late 1590s. In 1600–1 he prepared a collection of the 10 works he had written by then and sent it to the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood, probably in the hope of having it printed. Titled ‘Knyzhka’ (Book), it did not appear in print at that time, but its transcriptions circulated widely in Ukraine. In 1604–6 he visited Ukraine and quarreled with the leaders of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood.
Vyshensky's writings stand out among Ukrainian polemical works of the 16th and 17th centuries by virtue of both their literary merit and their ideological content. He did not simply reject the Uniate church and Catholicism. Grounded in Byzantine asceticism, he sharply criticized temporal life and the entire church hierarchy and secular hierarchy and urged a return to the simplicity of old Christian brotherhood in order to bring about God's Kingdom on earth. He rejected as pagan both secular education and learning on the one hand and old, pre-Christian folk traditions on the other. Stylistically, Vyshensky drew upon the traditional forms of the epistle dialogue and polemical treatise and often mixed these genres. In strong, colorful language he depicted the moral decadence of the upper classes, particularly of the clergy, and contrasted them with poor peasants and simple monks. Exalted feelings alternate with harsh satire and sarcasm. An abundance of epithets and similes, the dramatic use of rhetorical questions and exhortations, ironic portrayals of everyday detail, a rich vocabulary, and the use of the vernacular make his writings lively and persuasive. His style owes much to Byzantine sermons and is closely related to the polemical writings of his Ukrainian (Meletii Smotrytsky) and Polish (Piotr Skarga, Mikołaj Rej) contemporaries. It is one of the finest examples of the baroque style.
Oral literature in Ukraine can be traced to pre-Christian times. Pagan ritual songs were subsequently much modified by association with various church feasts (e.g., kolyadky with the Christmas cycle). The heroic epics (byliny) of the early medieval period may have survived in Ukraine until the 16th century, but they were then wholly superseded by historical songs (dumy) based on events in the 16th and 17th centuries in Cossack Ukraine.
Written literature began with Christianization and the introduction of Old Church Slavonic as a liturgical and literary language. The literary
heritage of the Ukrainian people in the early period, from the 11th to the 13th century, is that of Kievan Rus'; their works were written in Church Slavonic. The earliest works of the Kievan period (10th century and following) were the historical annals: "Povist vremennykh lit" ("Tale of Bygone Years"), the Hypatian (Kievan) chronicle, and the Galician-Volhynian chronicle. The 12th-century "Slovo о polky Ihorevi" ("The Song of Igor's Campaign") is a unique historical epic, the most prominent piece of literary heritage of Kievan Rus'. Sermons, tales, and lives of the saints were the major genres. The major authors of this period were the chronicler Nestor, the sermon writers Ilarion of Kiev, Cyril of Turov, and Prince Volodymyr (Vladimir) II Monomakh.
After the Mongol destruction of Kievan Rus in the 13th century, literary activity in Ukraine declined. A revival began in the late 16th century with the introduction of printing, the Reformation ferment, and the advance of the Counter-Reformation into Polish-dominated Ukrainian lands. The Union of Brest-Litovsk (1596), which united several million Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox believers with Rome, stimulated an exceedingly.

42.Hrabianka, Hryhorii [Hrabjanka, Hryhorij], 1686–1737/1738. A Cossack officer and historian. He held various offices in Hadiach regiment: judge (1717–23), quartermaster (1726–30), and colonel (1730–8). For signing and delivering the Kolomak Petitions he was imprisoned from 1723
показати повністю..42.HRABIANKA, HRYHORII [HRABJANKA, HRYHORIJ], 1686–1737/1738. A Cossack officer and historian. He held various offices in Hadiach regiment: judge (1717–23), quartermaster (1726–30), and colonel (1730–8). For signing and delivering the Kolomak Petitions he was imprisoned from 1723 to 1725 in Saint Petersburg. He died in a campaign against the Crimean Tatars during the Russo-Turkish wars. Hrabianka is the author of Diistviia prezil’noi i ot nachala poliakov krvavshoi nebyvaloi brani Bohdana Khmelnytskoho, hetmana Zaporozhskoho s poliaky... (The Events of the Most Bitter and the Most Bloody War since the Origin of the Poles between Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Zaporozhian Hetman, and the Poles..., 1710). This work presents the history of Ukraine from ancient times to 1709; almost half of it deals with the Cossack-Polish War of 1648–57. Hrabianka used various official documents, eyewitness accounts, chronicles, the Sinopsis of 1674, the writings of M. Kromer, Marcin Bielski, Maciej Stryjkowski, A. Guagnini, W. Kochowski, S. von Pufendorf, and other works. His chronicle is inspired by the idea of Ukrainian Cossack autonomism. He condemns those Russian voivodes who restricted Ukraine's political rights. The work is known from numerous 18th-century transcriptions. It was published in 1793 in an abridged version by Fedir Tumansky in Rossiiskii magazin and in 1854, using six different copies, by the Kyiv Archeographic Commission. The censored parts of the latter version were later published in Kievskaia starina, vol 47 (1894). Some scholars—Symon Narizhny, for example—expressed doubts about Hrabianka's authorship of the chronicle.
Three chronicles deserve special mention: the anonymous Samovydets Chronicle, which begins with the Khmelnytsky uprising and ends in 1702; the Hryhorii Hrabianka Chronicle (1710), which concentrates on the Khmelnytsky period but begins in antiquity and ends at the beginning of the 18th century; and the Samiilo Velychko chronicle, completed after 1720.

43.Prokopovych, Teofan [Prokopovyč] (secular name: Eleazar), b 18 June 1681 in Kyiv, d 19 September 1736 in Saint Petersburg. Orthodox archbishop, writer, scholar, and philosopher. He graduated from the Kyivan Mohyla Academy in 1696 and continued his education in Lithuania, Polan
показати повністю..43.PROKOPOVYCH, TEOFAN [PROKOPOVYČ] (SECULAR NAME: ELEAZAR), B 18 JUNE 1681 IN KYIV, D 19 SEPTEMBER 1736 IN SAINT PETERSBURG. Orthodox archbishop, writer, scholar, and philosopher. He graduated from the Kyivan Mohyla Academy in 1696 and continued his education in Lithuania, Poland, and at the Saint Athanasius Greek College in Rome. In 1704 he returned to the Mohyla Academy to teach poetics, rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. He also served as prefect from 1708 and rector in 1711–16. He gained prominence as a writer and as a supporter of Hetman Ivan Mazepa. His most famous work, Vladimir, is dedicated to the hetman, whom he depicted as the figure of the Grand Prince of Kyiv. Prokopovych also praised Mazepa in his sermons and propounded Kyiv as the second Jerusalem. Following Mazepa's unsuccessful revolt against Tsar Peter I in 1709, however, Prokopovych denounced him and expressed his complete allegiance to Peter. He participated in the campaign to vilify Mazepa, calling him ‘the one filled with the Devil's spirit’ and ‘the new Judas.’ From then he became a favorite of Peter's and was rewarded with several promotions. He was called to Saint Petersburg to be a preacher and adviser to the tsar, was consecrated bishop (1718) and then archbishop (1720) of Pskov, was appointed vice-president of the new Holy Synod in 1721, and finally was made archbishop of Novgorod in 1725.
In the 1720s Prokopovych played a crucial role in the reform of the Russian Orthodox church. He supported the liquidation of the position of patriarch and the creation of the Holy Synod under the direct authority of the tsar. In 1721 he wrote the Dukhovnyi reglament, a reform statute under which the church was transformed into a state bureaucracy. He was also one of the major theorists of Russian autocracy. These positions brought him into conflict with the traditional church establishment and the boyars, who succeeded in isolating him from Russian political and cultural life after Peter's death.
Prokopovych's most notable contribution to Ukrainian literature was the drama Vladimir (1705). Although filled with Old Church Slavonic expressions, it is innovative in its use of dialogue and varied patterns of verse. His other poetic works include a panegyric on the Battle of Poltava in Ukrainian, German, and Latin; various elegies; and other works. He wrote an authoritative textbook on poetics, De arte poetica..., which was influenced more by classical poetics than by prevailing baroque theory. In this he introduced the use of the hexameter and developed the epigram and other poetic forms. After his departure to Saint Petersburg, Prokopovych lost contact with Ukrainian literary development. His subsequent works were all in Russian and often devoted to praising Peter I and his imperial reforms.
He wrote many theological works in Latin and Old Church Slavonic. His theology showed the influence of Protestant theologians and his conscious departure from the Catholic influences that earlier predominated at the academy. His Philosophia peripatetica is a philosophical text that embraces logic, natural philosophy, mathematics, and ethics. In it he set out the ideas of Descartes, Locke, Bacon, Hobbes, and Spinoza and supported the theories of Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus. He also introduced the teaching of mathematics and geometry into the curriculum of the Kyivan Academy. His text on rhetoric(1979), criticized the baroque style in speeches, sermons, and panegyrics and argued for the dominance of content over form.
Most of Prokopovych's historical writings deal with the reign of Peter I. The most important of these is Istoriia imperatora Petra Velikogo ot rozhdeniia ego do Poltavskoi batalii.

44. H.Scovoroda in Ukrainian culture
Born Nov. 22 (Dec. 3), 1722, in the village of Chernukhi, Poltava Province; died Oct. 29 (Nov. 9), 1794, in the village of Ivanovka (now Skovoro-dinovka, Kharkov Oblast). Ukrainian philosopher, poet, and pedagogue.
Skovoroda was closel
показать полностью..44. H.SCOVORODA IN UKRAINIAN CULTURE
Born Nov. 22 (Dec. 3), 1722, in the village of Chernukhi, Poltava Province; died Oct. 29 (Nov. 9), 1794, in the village of Ivanovka (now Skovoro-dinovka, Kharkov Oblast). Ukrainian philosopher, poet, and pedagogue.
Skovoroda was closely associated with the traditions of democratic Ukrainian culture, from which he drew the models for his popular anticlerical satire. In his role as a teacher of the peasants he held a critical attitude not only toward feudal ideology but also toward early bourgeois ideology with its cult of material satisfaction and success.

Skovoroda’s philosophical teachings as set forth in his dialogues and treatises are based on the idea of three worlds: the macrocosm, or universe; the microcosm, or man; and a symbolic reality. The symbolic world links together the macrocosm and the microcosm, which are ideally reflected in it. The most perfect example of this third world, according to Skovoroda, is the Bible. Each of the three worlds consists of two “natures” (natury): the visible nature—creation (tvar), or the created world—and the invisible nature—god.
Skovoroda’s social and pedagogical views are based on the doctrine of a man’s nature (srodnost’) and natural occupation. Self-knowledge reveals the specific kind of activity, whether physical or spiritual, that is in each person’s nature. To be truly happy, a man must come to know his nature. According to Skovoroda, the ideal of a perfect human society can be achieved only through the spiritual preparation of the individual. Since not everyone is capable of the creative effort of self-knowledge, the problem of social pedagogy arises. Skovoroda’s ideal pedagogue is reminiscent of Socrates’ image of the midwife. The task of the teacher does not consist in instilling something in the student or in intellectual dictation but rather in calmly and tactfully helping him to discover his true vocation—the vocation to which his nature disposes him.

Skovoroda composed a collection of prose fables and a collection of poems called The Garden of Divine Songs, in which the traditions of old Ukrainian lyric songs predominate. His literary manner is characterized by expressive imagery, by striking transitions from the passionate to the humorous or the grotesque, and by an abundance of metaphors, antitheses, recurring images, and symbols. The democratic spirit of his style and the polyphonic dialogue form he used to express his ideas contributed to the wide popularity of the works and personality of the wandering philosopher during his lifetime. The critical themes and unique stylistic characteristics of Skovoroda’s poetry and fables were used and developed in later Ukrainian literature.

45. Cultural meaning of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment has been defined in many different ways, but at its broadest was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of th
показать полностью..45. CULTURAL MEANING OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Enlightenment has been defined in many different ways, but at its broadest was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of thought over dogma, blind faith and superstition. Logic wasn’t a new invention, having been used by the ancient Greeks, but it was now included in a worldview which argued that empirical observation and the examination of human life could reveal the truth behind human society and self, as well as the universe. All were deemed to be rational and understandable. The Enlightenment held that there could be a science of man, and that the history of mankind was one of progress, which could be continued with the right thinking.
The spearhead of the Enlightenment was a body of well connected writers and thinkers from across Europe and North America who became known as the philosophes, which is the French for philosophers. These leading thinkers formulated, spread and debated the Enlightenment in works including, arguably the dominant text of the period, the Encyclopédie.

Where historians once believed that the philosophes were the sole carriers of Enlightenment thought, they now generally accept that they were merely the vocal tip of a much more widespread intellectual awakening among the middle and upper classes, turning them into a new social force. These were professionals such as lawyers and administrators, office holders, higher clergy and landed aristocracy, and it was these who read the many volumes of Enlightenment writing, including the Encyclopédie and soaked up their thinking.

46
RUSSIFICATION OF THE “LITTLE RUSSIANS”
Russian rule on Ukrainian lands was, for most Ukrainians, repressive. The Russian tsar was the supreme authority, dominating both secular governmental institutions. Most Ukrainian were enserfed peasants, tied to the land and to the
показать полностью..46.RUSSIFICATION OF THE “LITTLE RUSSIANS”
Russian rule on Ukrainian lands was, for most Ukrainians, repressive. The Russian tsar was the supreme authority, dominating both secular governmental institutions. Most Ukrainian were enserfed peasants, tied to the land and to the labor demands imposed on them by landlords. Whereas many landlords grew rich on the grain trade, most peasants lived in squalid conditions. Illiteracy rates were high; health provisions were minimal.
Russian rule, however, also had an important cultural component. Because the “Little Russians” were linguistically and culturally similar to the “Great Russians,” the government viewed Ukraine as essentially Russian land. In Ukraine started russification.
Russification took on various forms. The most obvious indicator that some of the “Little Russians” were not properly Russian was that they attended non-Orthodox churches. This was especially true in Right Bank Ukraine, which had been under Polish-Lithuanian rule. Initially, the Russians displayed some tolerance toward the Greek Catholic Church, but, after a Polish revolt in 1830–31 that had some support by the Greek Catholic hierarchy, the Russian authorities took a dimmer view on its activities. In 1839, the Greek Catholic Church was banned on Russian territory.
Russian authorities, however, did not force all inhabitants to profess Christian Orthodoxy.
Education provided another means for Russian authorities to “Russify” the population. The first university in modern Ukraine was established in Kharkiv in 1805 and a university was established in Kiev in 1834. Both were Russian-language institutions. Primary education was also in Russian, which meant that Polish-language schools on Right Bank Ukraine were closed. This hurt Ukrainians because they could not afford to educate their children at home instead. As a consequence, literacy rates under Russian rule actually fell. Nevertheless, there was no comprehensive program to remake the Ukrainian peasant masses into Russians.
As for the elite, including vestiges of the Cossack nobility, andowners, bureaucrats, Orthodox Church officials, musicians, painters, and writers were able to succeed in the Russian Empire, they did so as part of the Russian establishment. In the words of Andrew Wilson, Russification had sucked Ukraine dry, leaving it, in the first part of the nineteenth century, a “cultural backwater.”

47
OLD UKRAINIAN TRADITION: BARDS: KOBZARS, BANDURYSTS, AND LIRNYKS
The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heri
показать полностью..47.OLD UKRAINIAN TRADITION: BARDS: KOBZARS, BANDURYSTS, AND LIRNYKS
The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heritage. While kobzars first emerged in Kyivan Rus', bandurysts and lirnyks appeared and became popular in the 15th century. Kobzars (eg, Churylo and Tarashko) often lived at the Zaporozhian Sich and accompanied the Cossacks on military campaigns. The epic songs they performed served to raise the morale of the Cossack army in times of war.
Kobzars - Wandering folk bards who performed a large repertoire of epic-historical, religious, and folk songs while playing a kobza or bandura.
Bandura. A Ukrainian musical instrument similar in construction and appearance to a lute. The bandura differs from other lutelike instruments by the presence of the prystrunky, on which the melody is performed (the bunty are used only for accompaniment), and the absence of frets. Each string produces only one note.
The oldest record of a bandura-like instrument in Ukraine is an 11th-century fresco of court musicians (skomorokhy) in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. This lute-like instrument is probably the ancestor of the bandura and the kobza. The two instruments were related, but distinct. The kobza was smaller in size and had fewer strings, but these were fretted. During the 17th and 18th century the bandura was very popular at the Zaporozhian Sich, among the common people, and at the gentry manors.

48
IMPERIAL ARTS: ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE IN UKRAINE
In some ways, rococo represented the continuation and conclusion of the baroque period in art and architecture. Rococo developed at first in a decorative art in the early 18th century in France. Lighter designs, decorative
показать полностью..48.IMPERIAL ARTS: ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE IN UKRAINE
In some ways, rococo represented the continuation and conclusion of the baroque period in art and architecture. Rococo developed at first in a decorative art in the early 18th century in France. Lighter designs, decorative motifs with many shell forms and natural patterns and small-scale sculpture replaced the flamboyant forms of the baroque architecture. In Ukraine, where baroque influences were particularly strong and long-lasting, rococo and baroque architectural influences were often intermingled. Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture can be seen particularly in iconostases, where carved shell motifs and interlace patterns replaced grapevines and acanthus foliage. Rastrelli and Meretyn were among the most important rococo architects in Ukraine
Rococo - architectural and decorative style that emerged in France in the early 18th century. It replaced the plasticity of the baroque and was characterized by light, graceful decoration, trivial subject matter, and small-scale sculpture. In decoration the open shell motif became popular. Rococo was used in church architecture throughout Ukraine. Examples of the rococo style in Ukraine are Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv; the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God, Chernihiv gubernia; the Roman Catholic churches of the Dominican order in Lviv and Ternopil; Saint George's Cathedral (1745–70) in Lviv and other.
Saint Andrew's Church - A masterpiece of rococo architecture in Kyiv. It was designed for Empress Elizabeth I by Rastrelli. The church has a central dome flanked by four slender towers topped with small cupolas.
Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture can be seen particularly in iconostases. In religious painting the rococo style had little impact because of the strong hold of the baroque.

49)
Dmitry Levitzky (May 1735 – April 17, 1822). The most prominent portraitist of the classicist era in the Russian Empire. He acquired his basic training from his father and helped him do engravings for the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press. In 1753–6 he helped his father and Alek
показать полностью..50. DMITRY LEVITZKY (MAY 1735 – APRIL 17, 1822). The most prominent portraitist of the classicist era in the Russian Empire. He acquired his basic training from his father and helped him do engravings for the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press. In 1753–6 he helped his father and Aleksii Antropov decorate Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv. From 1758 to 1761 he worked in Saint Petersburg, where he studied with Antropov and G. Valeriani. From 1762, while living in Moscow he was a portraitist in great demand among the Russian aristocracy. He moved to Saint Petersburg in 1769, and he won the highest award at the summer exhibition in 1770 held by the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts and was elected a member of the academy. A teacher of portraiture at the academy (1771–88), he retired to Ukraine in 1788, but in 1795 he returned to Saint Petersburg to become portraitist at the imperial court. Levytsky created a school of portrait painting. Many Ukrainian and Russian portraitists studied with Levytsky at the academy, and his works influenced Volodymyr Borovykovsky.
Volodymyr Borovykovsky (July 24 1757 - April 6 1825) was born in Saint Petersburg. Iconographer and portrait painter, son of Luka Borovyk who was a Cossack fellow of the banner and an iconographer. Borovykovsky was trained in art by his father and uncle and then in 1788 went to study portrait painting under Dmytro Levytsky at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts. In 1793 he became an academician there. Until 1787 Borovykovsky lived and worked in Ukraine. During his career he painted many churches, icons, and iconostases, only some of which have been preserved: the icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary, and other.
Borovykovsky painted about 160 portraits, among them Ukrainian public figures. At the beginning of the 1790s Borovykovsky began to paint miniatures and portraits of women in the Ukrainian iconographic style. Adhering to the spirit of classicism, he promoted West European traditions through his art. The largest number of Borovykovsky's works can be found in the museums of Saint Petersburg and Moscow. In Ukraine they can be seen in the museums of Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Poltava. Other Ukrainian painters of Classicism its Kotliarevsky, Ivan Biletsky-Nosenko, Pavlo Kvitka-Osnovianenko, Hryhorii Losenko, Antin Kapnist, Vasyl.

51)
Classicism.
Literature.
Also important in ending the Cossack period in Ukrainian literature was the rise of classicism in the literature of the West. The influence of classicism began to be felt in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. Of the pr
показать полностью..51. CLASSICISM. LITERATURE.
Also important in ending the Cossack period in Ukrainian literature was the rise of classicism in the literature of the West. The influence of classicism began to be felt in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. Of the prescriptive tenets of classicism the most important for the further development of Ukrainian literature was that which defined the three styles of literary writing, high, middle, and low. Classicism recognized different registers of language: only odes, tragedies, and scholarly writings were written in the high style; drama and prose were relegated to the middle style; and comedy, burlesque, and travesty were written in the low style.
Classicism appeared in Ukraine in the mid-18th century. In its broad sense the term refers to any kind of imitation of classical poetry; in its narrow sense, to a literary movement that arose in opposition to the baroque and worked out its own poetic norms, which included clarity of expression, the striving for ideal beauty, and strict adherence to certain rules or the imitation of certain models. Its main examples are the travesties or parodies of N. Boileau and classical models. Although they are recognized by classicist poetics, travesties are considered to belong to a ‘low’ genre.

52)
Ivan Kotliarevsky (9 September 1769 in Poltava - 10 November 1838 in Poltava). Poet and playwright; the ‘founder’ of modern Ukrainian literature. After studying at the Poltava Theological Seminary (1780–9), he worked as a tutor at rural gentry estates, where he became acqu
показать полностью..52. IVAN KOTLIAREVSKY (9 SEPTEMBER 1769 IN POLTAVA - 10 NOVEMBER 1838 IN POLTAVA). Poet and playwright; the ‘founder’ of modern Ukrainian literature. After studying at the Poltava Theological Seminary (1780–9), he worked as a tutor at rural gentry estates, where he became acquainted with folk life and the peasant vernacular, and then served in the Russian army (1796–1808). In 1810 he became the trustee of an institution for the education of children of impoverished nobles. He helped stage theatrical productions at the Poltava governor-general's residence and was the artistic director of the Poltava Free Theater (1812–21). From 1827 to 1835 he directed several philanthropic agencies.
Kotliarevsky's greatest literary work is his travesty of Virgil's Aeneid, Eneïda, which he began writing in 1794. Publication of its first three parts in Saint Petersburg in 1798 was funded by Maksym Parpura. Part four appeared in 1809. Kotliarevsky finished parts five and six around 1820, but the first full edition of the work (with a glossary) was published only after his death, in Kharkiv in 1842.
Eneïda was written at a time when popular memory of the Cossack Hetmanate was still alive and the oppression of tsarist serfdom in Ukraine was at its height. Kotliarevsky's broad satire of the mores of the social estates during these two distinct ages, combined with the in-vogue use of ethnographic detail and with racy, colorful, colloquial Ukrainian, ensured his work's great popularity among his contemporaries. It spawned several imitations and began the process by which the Ukrainian vernacular acquired the status of a literary language, thereby supplanting the use of older, bookish linguistic forms.
Kotliarevsky's operetta Natalka Poltavka and vaudeville Moskal’-charivnyk were landmarks in the development of Ukrainian theater. Written ca 1819, they were first published in vols 1 (1838) and 2 (1841) of the almanac Ukrainskii sbornik. As a playwright, Kotliarevsky combined the intermede tradition with his knowledge of Ukrainian folkways and folklore.

CORRELATION BETWEEN THE WORLD CULTURE, ETHNOCULTURE, AND NATIONAL CULTURE

The world culture is the experience, which was accumulated in the prospects of socio-cultural history of humankind. The world culture integrates all cultural units since the prehistoric times till our days, and all over the world territories, from the West to the East, and from the South to the North.

Ethnoculture (or folklore culture) is the culture of people, who are locally united by common origins (blood relations) and collectively organized economic activity. Elements of ethnoculture are: rites, customs, myths, superstitions, legends traditions, folklore, daily life standards and so on. Ethnoculture transmits them from a generation to a generation by means of collective memory, alive language, oral speeches, natural music ear, and organic plastics in an immediate communication of people. Ethnoculture has no authors, it is nameless and anonymous.

National culture is a culture of people, who inhabit a definite territory, and are not connected with blood relations, but constitute a nation. Nation is a unit more complicated than an ethnos. It is provoked by more refined level of communications and the latter is embodied in a national language, and disseminated by literature, mass media, and a system of education. National culture fastens together people at the boundaries of a nation and diminishes their regional and local differences. National culture is not primarily created by the whole ethnos (or several ethnoses which constitute a nation) but by its intellectuals – by writers, painters, philosophers, scientists. It means that national culture includes professional culture side by side with ethnocultural elements, and consists of ethnoculture plus literature, philosophy, law, science, and so on.

So, national culture is a sphere of communication of a nation, it unites individuals at the boundaries of a nation, and it really exists because a definite set of cultural phenomena acquires a general meaning irrespectively to local (regional) peculiarities. And a nation is a form of spiritual unity of people of one or several ethnoses which is provided by the existence of national culture.

Every national culture consists of such constitutional components: environment; ethnocultural heritage; historical peculiarities and relations with neighbors; external cultural influences; professional culture. Sources of national culture allow to understand the progress of formation of unique national culture. Basing on this universal scheme of components, sources of Ukrainian culture are: nature of Ukraine; Ukrainian ethnoculture based on folklore traditions and customs, pagan influences on cultural life; Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and Greek-Catholic rite as traditional believes of Ukrainians, Judaism as a religion of Jews who inhabited Ukrainian lands since the ancient times, and Islam, the oppression to which for a centuries constituted Ukrainian traditions; Eastern (pre-Indo-European, Indo-European, pre-Slavic, Balkan, Iranian, and Altai) and Western (Ancient Greek and Roman, Germanic Byzantium, and Western-European) external cultural influences; professional culture which is created by professional artists, writers, poets, philosophers, musicians, scientists and is closely connected with the world cultural heritage.

Parts of national culture are its spheres in a definite historical period. It means that ethnoculture, economics, politics, religion, science, technology, philosophy, literature, arts, and crafts can be observed in their specifics in ancient, medieval, and modern periods of Ukrainian history.

3. Early forms of religious experience: animism, fetishism, totemism
One of the most common beliefs of primitive man was animism, which was detected in the faith of a variety of spirits, the soul as the body double, medium life, as well as animals and plants. Materials of the
показати повністю..3. EARLY FORMS OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE: ANIMISM, FETISHISM, TOTEMISM
One of the most common beliefs of primitive man was animism, which was detected in the faith of a variety of spirits, the soul as the body double, medium life, as well as animals and plants. Materials of these beliefs are gathered and described the English ethnologist and religious E. Tylor in his book "The original culture." For Tylor, animism theory breaks down into two main tenets that form parts of one whole doctrine. The first one concerns the souls of individual creatures, able to survive after death. Other - other spirits. Animist recognizes that spiritual beings govern the phenomena of the material world and human life and affect them in this and the afterlife. As animists believe that spirits communicate with people and that past deeds bring them joy or frustration, then sooner or later, the belief in their existence should lead naturally and, one might even say necessarily true honor to them or their desire to appease. Thus, animism in its full development includes a belief in "guiding" the deities and subordinate spirits to them, in soul and future life, beliefs that go into practice in real worship.
Another common belief is the fetishism of primitive man, who is thinking of giving some-fantasy objects and phenomena of inanimate nature supersensible qualities.
The notion of fetishism as a form of religion oplutane considerable obscurity, because different researchers give different meanings to the term. Indeed, while s