Unit 1. Language practice and writing

Английский язык

Учебно-методическое пособие для самостоятельной работы по

Английскому языку

Красноярск

 

УДК 811.111(07)

ББК 81.432.1я73

А647

 

 

Составители: Л. И. Кузнецова, Т. Л. Харви

 

А647 Английский язык: учебно-методическое пособие для самостоятельной работы по английскому языку / сост. Кузнецова Л. И., Харви Т. Л. – Красноярск: Сиб. федер. ун-т, 2012. 50 с.

 

Методические указания предназначены для самостоятельной работы студентов Гуманитарного института по специальностям 030402.65 – Историко-архивоведение, 030101.65 - философия. Цель издания – обеспечить студентов дополнительным материалом для самостоятельной работы по английскому языку.

 

 

УДК 364-78(07)

ББК 65.272я73

© Сибирский

федеральный

университет, 2012

 

 

Оглавление

Методическая записка……………………………………………………………4

Unit 1……………………………………………………………………………….5

Unit 2……………………………………………………………………………….6

Unit 3………………………………………………………………………………7

Unit 4……………………………………………………………………………….9

Unit 5……………………………………………………………………………..11

Unit 6……………………………………………………………………………..13

Unit 7……………………………………………………………………………..14

Unit 8……………………………………………………………………………..15

Unit 9……………………………………………………………………………...16

Unit 10…………………………………………………………………………….18

Unit 11…………………………………………………………………………….20

Unit 12…………………………………………………………………………….21

Getting ready for the exam………………………………………………………..22

Speaking and Discussing …………………………………………………………24

Key to exercises…………………………………………………………………...40

Sources……………………………………………………………………………..45

 

 

Методическая записка.

Самостоятельная работа по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» занимает одно из ключевых мест в общей системе языковой подготовки студентов. Методические указания включают основные двенадцать циклов (Units 1-12), соотнесенные с тематикой модулей учебного курса “Cutting Edge” и три дополнительных раздела для самостоятельной работы. В разделы входят задания по различным видам речевой деятельности:

· задания по языковой практике (language practice) предназначены для

закрепления лексико-грамматического материала по теме модуля и

обобщающее повторение грамматических тем;

· задания по переводу и творческой работе;

· задания по аудированию, чтению, письму и говорению, которые соответствуют темам образовательных программам по английскому языку для студентов Гуманитарного института.

 

UNIT 1. LANGUAGE PRACTICE AND WRITING

I. Review Present tenses

Main points: There are four present tenses – present simple, present continuous, present perfect and present perfect continuous. All the present tenses are used to refer to a time which includes the present. Present tenses are also used for predictions made in the present about future events

 

A. In the sentences below, decide if the verb underlined refers to the present (P), the future (F), or to something habitual (H).

 

1. Joe wants to be a pilot, when he grows up. F

2. He always go abroad for our holidays.

3. I am sorry, but I feel tired.

4. I just want to go to sleep.

5. Washington is the capital of the USA.

6. When do you start at the university next year?

7. Oh dear, this milk tastes awful.

8. You look really funny in that hat.

9. Give my love to Norman if you see him.

10. Do your children help about the house?

11. It’s amazing how many people eat far too much.

 

C. Look carefully at the words in bold. Underline those which refer to the future.

 

1. A: Are you doing anything tomorrow?

B: Not really. We are just staying at home.

2. A: Is Peter living at home now?

B: No, he is still at university at Sheffield.

3. A: How about your exams? Have you passed?

B: I don’t know. I’ll let you know as soon as I’ ve heard the results.

4. A: Is Jack the boy who is coming to stay next week?

B: No. Jack lives just near us. It’s Dan who’ s coming to stay

5. A: Have you seen Jenny recently?

B: No, but we’ll probably see her when we go to Leeds.

6. A: Will you come home after you’ ve finished work?

B: No. I ’m meeting Joe in town and we ’re going to the theatre.

 

II. Write E-mail to your friend telling all about yourself and your students’ life. Use the questions in present tenses:

How are things with you?

How is all your family?

Does your sister go to school?

What are you doing?

What are your parents doing these days?

Where are you going to stay on holidays?

Have you visited any interesting places recently?

 

UNIT 2. LANGUAGE PRACTICE AND WRITING

I. Review Past tenses

 

Main points: There are four past tenses – past simple, past continuous, past perfect and past perfect continuous. All the past tenses are used to refer to past time. The

Past tenses are used as polite forms. The past tenses have special meanings in conditional clauses and when referring to imaginary situations.

 

UNIT 3. READING AND WRITING

I. Review Perfect tenses

 

Main points: You use the present perfect to relate the past to the present.

You use the past perfect to talk about a situation that occurred before a particular time in the past.

 

Alexander the Great

After Alexander's untimely death, what happened to those closest to him? What of his wives and children? His mother? Ptolemy? Some managed to survive; others were not so fortunate. Alexander's empire thus ended as it began - with much death.

Olympias was protecting the legacy of her son as best she could, she waged war to assure the succession of Alexander's infant son, Alexander IV. She was killed by Cassander, Alexander's former friend, in 316.

Philip Arridaeus was Alexander's mentally deficient half-brother became king after Alexander died, although his regent Perdiccas ruled the empire. Olympias ordered the execution of her step-son on December 25, 317.

Barsine never married to Alexander. Barsine was the mother of Alexander's first child, a son named Heracles. Both were murdered by (or before) the year 309 B.C.

Roxane was the woman with whom Alexander fell in love "at sight" (according to the ancient writer Arrian of Nicomedia whose history, Anabasis of Alexander, is a key source of information regarding Alexander) was from Bactria. After her husband's death, Roxane thought the deal she made would give her son, Alexander IV, the throne when he was old enough (in 305). That agreement, however, merely insured their deaths. Cassander order the executions of both.

Statira. At Alexander's death, his Persian wife Statira (daughter of Darius III and also called Barsine) was a threat to Roxane. (She must have been expecting a child.) Consistent with the treatment of other such threats, Roxane had Statira murdered in 320.

Ptolemy. Alexander's friend not only became governor of Egypt after Alexander died, he began a dynasty of Pharaohs which lasted until Rome annexed Egypt in 31 BC. Unusual for antiquity, the Ptolemaic Empire also permitted women to rule. Cleopatra, of Julius Caesar/Marc Anthony fame, was a descendant of Ptolemy.

I. Review the passive voice

Main points: You use the passive voice to focus on the person or thing affected by an action. You form the passive by using a form of be and a past participle. Only verbs that have an object can have a passive form. With verbs that can have two objects? Either object can be the subject of the passive.

Compare Active and Passive Voice:

 

	Active	Passive
Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect	He translates He is translating He has translated	The text is translated The text is being translated The text has been translated
Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect	He translated He was translated He had translated	The text was translated The text was being translated The text had been translated
Future Simple	He will translated	The text will betranslated
Modals (must, can, may, etc)	He must/can/may translate	The text must/can/may betranslated
Infinitive (present) -ing form	to translate translating	to betranslated being translated

A. Match the pairs.

1 Petrol prices… 2 This jacket … 3 Competition! 5000 prizes.. 4 Five people … 5 The telephone … 6 It appears the phone bill … 7 Further information … 8 Before the storm everyone … 9 Smoking … 10 The old town theatre …

A … to be won. B … has been increased. C … has been disconnected. D… will be sent to candidates. E …was made in Hong Kong. F … were killed in the rally. G … is not permitted anywhere on this station. H … hasn’t been paid. I … is currently being rebuilt J … was told to stay inside their homes

 

B. Now look at these sentences again. Underline the past participle and note the form of the verb be. How many refer to the past and how many to the future.

Ottoman Empire

 

1. The Ottoman Dynasty … (find) in the first half of the fourteenth century AD by Osman I who … (become) chieftain of a pastoral tribe that then …(range) over northwestern Anatolia and … (engage) in periodic encroachments on Byzantine dominions.

2. Over the course of centuries Osman’s tribe … (grow) stronger and … (pursue) a course of conquest which …(result) in its obtaining possession of both a substantial portion of the Balkans and Anatolian territory up to the straits that …(separate) Constantinople from Chalcedon.

3. In 1453 Constantinople … (fall) to the troops of Mohammed II. There … (follow) a period of Ottoman expansion in which the tide of conquest … (move) south to the Persian Gulf, west across North Africa to the borders of what is now Morocco, northwest to the gates of Vienna, and north to embrace almost the entire coast of the Black Sea.

 

Palestine Before WWI

The anti-Semitic climate in Europe in the 19^th century had much to do with the influx of Jews into Palestine, a situation that was largely responsible for the beginning of civil and religious unrest there and the subsequent involvement of some of the world’s most powerful nations. During the early to mid 1800’s, Palestine was held by the Ottoman regime and while the elements of interaction between the Palestinians and the Ottomans were tense, this period served to develop for the Palestinians a number of survival strategies that were built around the Ottoman system of political and economic power. By 1840 major changes on the civil level were already underway in Palestine. The Palestinians themselves were becoming more comfortable with state institutions and the burgeoning economy that was created by Muhammad ‘Ali’s influence also created new opportunities for the Arabs. Both the 19th century and 20th century colonization of Palestine introduced and generated the development of capitalism and ultimately Palestine’s position of political and economic significance to other countries. By the time the British took Palestine in 1918, they had already been formulating its purpose as a stepping stone to gaining other regions as well as a Zionist outpost. At the very same time that it was playing Zionism against the Arabs, The British were utilizing Arab nationalism against Turkey. In order to elicit the help of the Palestinian Arabs against the Turks, the British promised their independence after World War I. To gain the assistance of the Jews, the British promised them a national home.

I. Conditional clauses

Main points: We use conditional clauses to talk about a possible situation and its results. Conditional clause can begin with if. A conditional clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause.

Peace treaty of Cadesh

Excerpts of the Peace Treaty between Ramses II and Hattusili III were found on walls of the Karnak Temple in Amon Egypt and engraved upon clay (the Babylonian version, found in Asia Minor). This peace treaty is the result of the “inconclusive” Battle of Kadesh (1286-1269 BC) and shared opposition from the Sea People and Assyrians toward both the Hittites and Egyptians. This peace treaty is the earliest recorded diplomatic document to date. Surprisingly, copies of both the Hittite and the Egyptian versions have been found, as well as a copy in the Akkadian language. The Egyptian version had been embellished with much praise to Ramses II, in keeping with the “more is better” lavishness of Egyptian elites during the New Kingdom. The New Kingdom, from 1567-1085 B.C., saw a rise in Egypt’s centralized power, and affluence unlike the world had witnessed prior to this time. Thus, Ramses II felt led to save face by not admitting defeat, by claiming glory for a victory he didn’t actually win, and for the treaty. Presented without the Ramsesian fluff, the Hittite copy seems to be more near the original. Both copies do, however, contain the heart of the agreement, that each country would agree to not encroach upon the other and that each country would come to the aid of the other for military support if the need arose. Also included in the treaty is an agreement that each country would extradite political refugees. The treaty was sealed by mutual agreement that the ‘gods’ were considered witnesses of the treaty.

IV. WRITING A NARRATIVE

Narrative.

Main points: Writing a narrative think about these questions: How does the story begin? How will you describe the characters and places? How does the story end? How can you make the ending more dramatic and interesting for readers?

Useful language:

A. Describing when things happen: One day/night… The following day… A few moments later… After a while…

B. Making the story more interesting: To their surprise … Feeling tired/terrified, they … Suddenly … Eventually …

C. Here are some time phrases we use to tell stories: the beginning of the story – once there was a man…, one day…, many years ago …, the middle of the story – the following day/night…, after a while…, a few weeks passed…, a few days later…, the end of the story – eventually …, finally…, in the end …

Persian wars

The great civilizations of the Ancient World were in contact with each other: Greeks, Egyptians and Mesopotamians traded with each other, warred with each other and coexisted throughout the known world. In the early 5th century BC, peaceful coexistence between the Greeks and the Persians broke out into open warfare. Following the long war, the Greeks vilified the Persians. Did the Greeks always hate the Persians or was this a consequence of the war?

It can be safely assumed that conflict between the Greeks and the Persians arose out of imperial expansion. Darius I sought to both expand the political territory of his empire in the West and capture a significant portion of Mediterranean trade. According to Herodotus, Darius’ wife shamed him into invading Greece. “The fact that you are making no further conquest to increase the power of Persia, must mean that you lack ambition,” she tells him in bed on night. This serves two purposes: one, it provides a motivation (Democedes prompts Atossa into encouraging an expedition to Greece), and two; it vilifies the actions (a woman goads the mighty Darius into attacking). Darius had allowed a certain amount of democracy for the Asian Greeks, and thus could not be totally vilified himself.

Darius was correct, however, in placing the blame for Asiatic revolts back in Ionia. At the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), Greek strategic victory over the mighty Persian army provided psychological strength: He said: “They were the first Greeks, so far as I know…who dared to look without flinching at Persian dress and the men who wore it; for until that day came, no Greek could hear the word Persian without terror”. Marathon was a decisive victory of a small city over a massive empire. Dehumanizing the enemy was simply a way to stress the moral superiority of the Athenians and the wickedness of the enemy.

In The Trojan Women by Euripides, the women of Troy have been divided between the heroes of Greece. Hecabe has been chosen by Odysseus to be his slave. She rails against him: “Now I belong to a perjured impious outcast, who defies Man’s law and God’s, monster of wickedness”. Odysseus, it should be remembered, is the great hero of Homer. To malign a mythic hero from the mouth of an Asian in this play is an example of demonizing the enemy. Euripides’ career spans the period immediately following the Persian Wars; as an established enemy they could be safely maligned in favor of the tragic hero of the play, in this case the Greek army.

World War I

The outbreak of World War I in research papers is shown in the way that WWI came about as the result of a series of hasty actions by fervently nationalistic countries – and not due to the strategic advances of Germany or any other single European power. Austria-Hungary could have refrained from offering Serbia an unacceptable ultimatum. Russia could have abstained during the outbreak of WWI from mobilizing hastily, allowing the conflict to remain within the geographical boundaries of the Balkans, and France could have been more aggressive in restraining its Russian ally rather than issuing the Russians a “blank check.” As well, Britain could have been more assertive in warning of its impending involvement in a pan-European conflict in the outbreak of WWI, perhaps enough to deter the Germans from moving forward. German historians Zara Steiner and Luigi Albertine fiercely opposed Fischer’s theory on the outbreak of WWI as well, claiming that he had taken numerous historical quotes and documents out of context. Indeed, the so-called Fisher Thesis may have given the Germans a tad too much credit – according to Fischer, the Germans first encouraged Austria-Hungary to place the Serbian ultimatum, then pushed the monarchy to declare war on Serbia when their terms were not met. It is far more plausible that the cause of World War I was the result of a series of miscalculations and political blunders that was not meant to be had the European rulers and statesmen understood the effects their actions would have had on those of others.

B. Which of theses things could you have done if you have lived a hundred years ago? Which things couldn’t you have done? Write six sentences like this one.

A hundred years ago I could have ridden a horse, but I couldn’t have flown in an airplane.

flown in an aeroplane gone to the cinema learned English listen to Beethoven listened to The Beetles played chess played computer games read Ernest Hemingway read Shakespeare ridden a horse traveled by train watched television

 

 

С. Complete these sentences using was able and could

Another reason the empire (1)…. to survive external threat was that she was blessed with fairly weak antagonists who were, at times, otherwise engaged. Russia and Austria were the adjacent European powers that (2)…., conceivably, threaten the empire’s very existence, but neither of these (3)…. in the eighteenth century to throw their full weight against Turkey. They had other foreign policy concerns and these worked to protect Turkey. Austria and Russia acted as checks upon each other from time to time and Prussia was a check on Catherine the Great’s move to the south.

 

I. Linking words.

Similar meanings to and: also, besides, what’s more Similar meanings to but: despite this, however Similar meanings to so: as the result, for that reason, therefore

HOMELESS IN THE USA

The city streets of America’s urban metropolises have remained crowded with homeless men and women for decades. (1) …. government agencies, religious organizations, and community outreach programs have aided in the health and welfare of the homeless but none have solved the problem or offered any long-term answers to homelessness. (2) …. at the root of the issue lie mental illness concerns, government bureaucracy, and humanitarian apathy towards a national problem that is often easier to turn away from than to look straight in the eyes of the homeless for the answer. (3) …. the solution appears to lie somewhere between the hands of the caring and the powers of government. An unprecedented trend is emerging in America to merge the division between church and state and work towards the mutual goals of solving social problems as a united force.

(4) …. the magnitude of the problem of homelessness in America is incontrovertible. According to the Homes for Homeless organization:

• The typical homeless family is a 20-year-old mother with children under the age of 6 (in the early 80's it consisted of a middle aged woman with adolescent children).
• Today's homeless mother has probably never been married, has an incomplete education, and has never been employed.
• 22% of homeless mothers grew up in foster care.
• 22% reported they lived in shelters as a child.
• 80% of homeless families moved two or more times before becoming homeless.
• 63% doubled up with friends or relatives before becoming homeless.

(5) …. the need for affordable housing reaches into the middle class, as the line between poverty and survival becomes blurred. Take for example the cost of housing in San Francisco. The Bay Area is a classic example of the need to serve people above and below the poverty line. According to Davis, federal guidelines assert that no more than 30 percent of a person’s income should go for housing. A household earning $18,000 a year would then spend $450 a month on housing. However, the median rent in San Francisco is $700, illustrating the need for affordable housing above low-income standards. These numbers cut across race lines and also illustrate the state of homelessness among racial discrimination lines. According to U.S. Conference of Mayors Task Force on Hunger and Homelessness (based on statistics from 26 cities between November 1, 1992 and October 31, 1993) and data from Census Bureau and Bureau of Labor Statistics, of the homeless.

GETTING READY FOR THE EXAM

SPEAKING AND DISCUSSING

The world since 9/11

The terrorist attacks of 9/11 on the World Trade Centre have served to significantly influence world politics and international relations by bringing many countries closer together, whilst also pushing many others much further apart. Discuss a very influential topic.

• What is the most significant event in international relations since 9/11?
• In what ways could the events of 9/11 be said to have improved international relations?
• Why, on the basis of international relations prior to the event, could 9/11 be considered inevitable?
• How have international relations between the West and the Middle East been influenced by 9/11?
• What are the key lessons that have been learned politically since 9/11?
• How has trade between nations been influenced by the events of 9/11?
• Why did the events of 9/11 actually happen?
• Was enough done in the immediate wake of 9/11 to prevent further similar acts of terrorism?
• Were the actions of countries in the wake of 9/11 legitimate?
• Is the use of force a legitimate response to terrorist attacks?

US Foreign Policy

In the latter half of the last century in particular, US foreign policy developed at pace, with the US electing to involve itself in events far across the world as a means of maintaining its position as one of the key 'superpowers' in the world today. In its foreign policy, the US has often talked about 'policing the rest of the world' how could such terminology be merely construed as bullying?

• Are the actions of the US in its international relations with other nations always legitimate?
• How, through the developing relationships of other countries, could the US be said to have overstepped its powers?
• The United Nations is meant to regulate countries, but the US thinks it is the 'police' who are really in control?
• How do the development of nuclear power in China and other Asian countries serve to reflect the negative aspects of US foreign policy?
• Why does China's growth as an economic power serve to threaten the US?
• Who actually controls US foreign policy?
• In recent years, why has US foreign policy bordered on bullying?
• Why could US foreign policy be likened to the Crusades for the 'Holy Grail' during the time of the Richard the Lion Heart?
• What is the most significant potential threat to US foreign policy? How is this likely to change US foreign policy?

British Foreign Policy

How the government establishes its foreign policy goals and seeks to put them into play, is a significant marker for how the country is perceived in Europe and the rest of the world. Compare the policies of this Labour government with that of the last Conservative governments - which were better? Why?

• Why could current Labour policies be said to be detracting from Britain's once proud traditional position in Europe?
• What are Britain's current policies? How are they legitimate?
• Has Britain's moves to be closer to Europe caused most of its economic and social problems?
• Is the free movement of people within the EU a significant marker for the success of Britain's foreign policy?
• How does Britain's current foreign policy serve to illustrate its close ties with the US?
• On the basis of Britain's foreign policy, is Britain little more than the US' 'pet'?
• How influential is Britain's foreign policy on the rest of Europe?
• How has the formation of a 'Single European Entity' served to influence Britain's foreign policy goals?
• 'Britain's foreign policy goals have always been limited and never really changed or achieved anything'. Why?

Problems with Africa

Africa's relations with the rest of the world have often been problematic because of the fact that many in the West consider their policies and politics somewhat contradictory, as governments are rarely considered democratic. Why is Africa such a worry to the Western world?

• If Africa is such a disappointment, why has Western involvement only served to make matters worse?
• To what extent could the political problems in Africa today have been affected by colonial rule?
• How far could ancient tribal traditions and religious beliefs be held to blame for the problems between African nations?
• What is the key cause of problems between African nations and how do they affect their relationships with the West?
• What efforts have been made by the rest of the world to resolve the tensions between African nations? How successful have they been?
• How are relations between African nations likely to develop in the future?
• On the basis of the many problems with relations between African nations, how could these best be resolved?
• Can Western ideals in relation to politics ever really be utilised in an African setting?
• Why has the West not gone into Africa and taken all their weapons away?

Russia and Eastern Europe

Whilst Russia remains a 'superpower' in the modern world, the fall of the Soviet Union has seen some significant changes in Eastern Europe with much closer relationships now being forged between these countries and those of the West. How has the collapse of the Soviet Union served to influence international relations between Eastern Europe and the West?

• With the formation of a 'Single Europe', has the opening up of the EU to Eastern European countries served to hinder or help this ideal?
• How did international relations in Eastern Europe serve to cause the Soviet Union's collapse?
• Why were Eastern European countries so susceptible to Soviet rule? What changed?
• How successfully have Eastern European countries been integrated into the EU?
• What are the most significant problems for the EU caused by the entry of Eastern European States?
• Why is Russia still considered to be such a threat to Western ideals?
• Has the Cold War ever really stopped?
• On the basis of past relations, why does Russia still look to distance itself from any offer of help from the West?
• On the basis of relations between Russia and the US, why have they never actually declared war?

China

In the latter part of the 21st century, whilst the Chinese government still maintained its distinctly communist ideals, the country became increasingly open to Western views on economic growth and technology, blended together with a view to rapid growth.

• To what extent have Western politics and ideals influenced China?
• Why did China elect to 'open' what have previously been a distinctly closed economy?
• Why China is considered such a threat to Western ideals?
• How could China's rapid economic growth be considered a good thing for the West?
• Why have greater efforts not been made by the West to forge closer relations with the Chinese?
• How could Chinese political ideals be said to have influenced Western politics? Has this been for the better?
• Why, when the power of the Soviet Union was considered such a threat, were greater efforts not made to overthrow China's communist rule?
• How can China be viewed with such suspicion, when the West is largely responsible for its growth?
• To what extent is the West's relationship with China illustrative of their relationship with Asia as a whole?
• Why does China's human rights record make relations with the West so complex?

Israel and The Middle East

There have long been significant difficulties in the relationship between the Arabs and the Israelis, mainly centered upon the recognition of a Palestinian State, which has led to many armed conflicts and complications with relationships with other countries. Why did the recognition of a Palestinian State prove so complex?

• How have relations between the Arabs and the Israelis served to influence their relationships with Western States?
• Why has the Arab-Israeli conflict gone on for so long?
• What is the most significant event that most effectively symbolises the breakdown of relations between the Arabs and the Israelis?
• How successful have Western attempts proved to be in resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict?
• What needs to be done to cement relations between the Arabs and the Israelis?
• Can a Palestinian State ever be recognised?
• Compare and contrast the recognition sought for a Palestinian State with that of Tibet - which is more likely?
• Why events were not resolved when the Arab-Israeli conflict descended into war?
• On the basis of past events, how could the UN be used to resolve this conflict?

European Union (EU)

The EU served to cement relations between the countries that were party to the Union with a view to establishing closer ties between the nations on all social, political and economic matters, for the good of the EU and its many member states. How successful have the ideals of the EU proved to be in structuring international relations?

• What is the most significant achievement of the EU?
• How could the EU be considered flawed in forming closer international relations between member states?
• Why could the EU be considered discriminatory to the formation of relations with nations beyond it? How could it be considered little more than a 'boys club'?
• How has allowing Eastern European countries into the EU served to detract from the ideals of the Union and the relations already forged?
• To what extent has the EU's formation been influenced by the understanding of the formation of the US?
• What aspect of the EU could be considered most detrimental to international relations? Why? What does this mean for the political standing of the Union?
• To what extent has a 'Single European Entity' been achieved? In the context of international relations, is this a good thing?
• Why was a 'Single European Entity' not possible sooner? Why were international relations not previously conductive to it?
• To what extent could the EU be said to be similar to the Soviet Union? Does this mean the Soviet Union was a good thing?

International law

The development of international law both regionally and throughout the globe has served to influence international relations and political views. But at the same time there is a feeling that such law is only useful where it serves a prescribed purpose that the majority chooses to recognize. In what ways has the law of the EU served to influence relations between their member states? Has this always been a good thing? Discuss with examples.

• Why does the law punish some countries when they break it, whilst others are left to their own devices?
• How successful has the United Nations proved to be as a law enforcement agency?
• Is the US above the law?
• Why are countries like China and Russia allowed to get away with breaches of the law as it stands internationally, whilst Iraq and Afghanistan are punished?
• Were the actions of the US in Iraq and Afghanistan legitimate?
• Is the use of force always justified?
• What reforms are needed by international law to improve international relations?
• In the face of complex politics, can international law ever be universally applicable?
• Why could it be considered best for international relations to have one set of rules for some countries and another set for others?

Translate the texts.

Alexander the Great

Text 1

Alexander the Great was born at the right time, with the right genes, and the right personality. By the time he died, at age 33, he ruled over 2 million square miles. He never lost a battle (except one against nature). Few men have changed the world as much as he. Taught by Aristotle, the young prince had other advantages. Through his mother, Olympias, he was descended (it is said) from Achilles. Through his murdered father, Philip II of Macedon (pronounced “Bilip” by his countrymen), he inherited a great army. Propelled by ambition and brilliant strategy, Alexander was a military genius. Thousands of years later he was still a role model for would-be conquerors, like Napoleon Bonaparte.

Text 2

Before Alexander III (later called "The Great") was born in Pella, likely on or about July 20 in 356 B.C., the Persian Empire was the dominant power in that part of the world. Cyrus, who founded the empire, and his successors who followed, including Darius, were intent to keep their conquered lands and subjected people. (A century earlier, some of the Persian-controlled territory had been colonized by Greece.) Philip II (Alexander's father) was also a man of military might and persuasive abilities. During his 23-year reign, he built a formidable army, subdued many Greek city-states, and established a Macedonian kingdom which provided protection for his people. Before his death, he considered invading Persia to further strengthen and solidify his country's position. Wishing his son (then fourteen years old) to study with the best teachers available, Philip sought out Aristotle and invited him to educate Alexander. Scholars believe that Alexander's mother (who reportedly learned to read when she was middle-aged) also favored the selection of Plato's brightest pupil.

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Aristotle was born in Stageira (located in the current Greek prefecture of Chalcidice [also called Halkidiki], Central Macedonia District, just north of the current village of Stagira). Not as famous then as he would become later, Aristotle had studied with Plato who had learned from Socrates. After he arrived in Pella, Aristotle (throughout the ages regarded as one of the best thinkers who ever lived) set up his royal school at Mieza (modern-day Naoussa) where archeologists believe they have uncovered its remains. For the next six years, Greece's greatest mind likely taught Greece's greatest conqueror the following subjects: Greek; Hebrew; Babylonian; Latin. The nature of the sea and the wind. The course of the stars. The life-span of the world. The revolutions of the firmament. The great teacher also showed his royal student the meaning of justice and the skills of rhetoric. And he warned him against the wiles of "loose women."

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When he was a boy, and a man, Alexander had the same favorite book: The Iliad, by Homer. Since Olympias believed that she was descended from Achilles, her son claimed the same ancestor. It is said that Alexander's tutor, Lysimachus, gained great favor when he nicknamed his young charge "Achilles." Aristotle, at Alexander's request, helped to prepare a special copy of The Iliad which the prince prized so highly, he kept it with him always. Even during his years of conquest he traveled with it, calling Homer's tale his "journey-book of excellence in war." Every night he slept with it, and a dagger, under his pillow. Alexander spoke fast, walked fast, and was so short that when he conquered Persia even a stool wasn't high enough for his feet as he sat on the Persian throne. He carried his head at a slight angle and his eyes - captured by the official court sculptor Lysippus - gazed intently. Sleep was a bother for both him and Aristotle. Of his physical features, this much seems certain: Like his father, he was a very handsome young man. His nose, as statues and paintings stress, was straight; his forehead was prominent and his chin short but jutting; his mouth revealed emotion, and the lips were often shown curling. Born under the sign of Leo, Alexander's images on coins depict him wearing the trademark lion-skin cap of yet another claimed ancestor, Heracles (depicted fighting the Nemean lion). Some scholars think he wore the lion headdress in everyday life.

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When Alexander was about twelve years old, one of his father's friends gave Philip a beautiful black horse named Bucephalas. Although the horse was extremely expensive - more than three times what one would normally pay at the time for a magnificent mount - Philip was distressed when he inspected the animal. Out of control, it was bucking, kicking and refusing to take commands. Philip, not anticipating what was about to happen, ordered the horse to be removed. The king's son, however, had noticed something significant about Bucephalas. He seemed afraid of his own shadow. Taking advantage of that, Alexander soothed the horse and unlike all others, was able to ride him. Philip, it is said, wept for joy and declared that Macedonia would never keep such a prince within her own boundaries.

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What was life like in Pella, where both Alexander and his father were born? The towns, and its royal sites, have been archeologically rediscovered during the past fifty years, thereby allowing us to examine the place where the future conqueror spent his youth. Ancient Pella was connected to the sea (the Thermaic Gulf) by a navigable inlet. Because the harbor silted over long ago, however, the site is landlocked today. Based on remains, scholars have reconstructed the royal palace. They have also unearthed other important places and artifacts: The palace court (although scholars believe the mosaic floors are post-Alexander); Bust of Alexander the Great, found at Pella; Ancient pipes uncovered in modern excavations; A Macedonian gold crown worn by royalty. Alexander's future conquests made himself, and his people, wealthy. That wealth is reflected in today's archeological finds at the old Macedonian capital. Some of the oldest mosaics in the world have been unearthed at Pella. Among them (from a time following Alexander) are: A mythological god (Dionysis) riding a leopard; Two warriors (the one on the left is Alexander) fighting a lion; A mythological centaur. The Romans sacked Pella in 168 B.C., and took its treasury to Rome. In the first century B.C., an earthquake destroyed the town. Modern archeologists have uncovered stores, and workshops, with their goods still recognizable. Residents rebuilt the city over its ruins, thereby preserving them. Long before the earthquake rocked Pella, however, a man-made incident rocked Philip's kingdom. It happened unexpectedly, during a time of celebration.

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In the summer of 336 B.C., Philip II was home in Macedonia. His conquests had been many (like Mount Pangeon which provided a source of gold to fund Philip's expeditions). Towns had been named after him (like Philippi, later made famous when Paul the apostle preached there). But the once-handsome man now carried the scars of war. After two decades of fighting, his immediately noticeable injury was a missing eye. Alexander (who had a previous falling-out with his father) was also at the royal palace that summer day since his family was celebrating both a wedding and Philip's upcoming invasion of Asia. Philip, known as a "man whose like had never been seen in Europe," had given his daughter (Cleopatra) in marriage to an ally (King Alexander of Epirus). Philip himself had married - again - not long before. He had already divorced Olympias, Alexander's mother (who was from Epirus, not Macedonia). The king's new wife Eurydice (his seventh, also called Cleopatra) was a young Macedonian, with whom Philip had a young daughter (named Europe) and an infant son (named Caranus, after the founder of the Macedonian royal dynasty). Angered by her own denigration, Olympias was also concerned about the succession of Alexander. In Macedonia, it was never certain that the oldest son would become king. And Alexander, unlike Caranus, was not a full-blooded Macedonian. Although it may not have disturbed Philip, there is another interesting piece of Macedonian history to consider. None of Philip's predecessors had died in his own bed. Since the king's power was purely personal, his authority was as absolute as he could make it. Homer's statement, made hundreds of years before, still applied: "Rule by might." In Homer's world, heroes strive for glory since death is inescapable. And in Philip's world, a loss of face could lead to a loss of title - or worse. As part of the celebrations, Philip ordered his bodyguards to leave him for a time. (Philip was a leader, not a tyrant, and it would have sent the wrong signal for him to attend a public celebration, in the royal theater, surrounded by armed men.) Pausanias, one of Philip's guards, disobeyed those orders and lingered behind. Unnoticed, Pausanias clutched a Celtic dagger which he plunged into Philip, killing him. Recent excavations have revealed the probable spot in the theater where Philip was stabbed. To this day, no one really knows who plotted Philip's murder. Many scholars point to Olympias who surely had motive. Alexander was soon cleared as a suspect, although scholars have wondered about his involvement. The prince acted quickly, however, to secure his power base and to make sure he would become his father's successor. More than 2,300 years later - in one of the most stunning archeological achievements of the 20th century - a tomb, believed to be Philip's, was rediscovered. Left untouched for thousands of years, its contents were nothing short of astonishing.

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Before Pella became the royal capital, the ancient town of Aigai had served that purpose. Since at least 1850, scholars believed the tranquil hills of nearby Vergina contained the graves or tombs (you need Real Player for this video link) of Macedonian royalty. In 1977, the late Greek archeologist, Manolis Andronikos, working in Vergina (also spelled Verghina) discovered several tombs. Two had never been plundered. One of those (believed, at the time, to be Philip's) contained a gold casket (called a larnax) with a royal Macedonian star burst on its cover. Inside the casket were cremated remains. Although there is scholarly disagreement, Andronikos (who published a book with numerous pictures of his findings) and his colleagues believed those cremated remains were of Alexander's father, Philip II. A skull - believed, by some, to be Philip's - was also recovered. The Great Tumulus Museum at Vergina, site of ongoing excavations (like the town's Acropolis), possesses the golden casket, a recovered bust of Philip II, and many artifacts. This video (you need Real Player to watch it) will enlighten you about some of the treasures found in Philip's grave. Based on their discoveries, scholars have reconstructed the royal palace where Philip and Alexander lived. Archeologists have turned over their incredible finds to Greek museums.

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For 150 years before Alexander's birth, the city-states of mainland Greece fought off-and-on with each other and with foreigners. At the time, towns along the eastern Aegean Sea (known then as Asia Minor and today as Turkey) were also Greek.Those Greek Asia Minor cities (like Ephesus) were frequently dominated by non-Greek powers. They once owed their allegiance to the Kingdom of Lydia (anchored in its capital of Sardis where a temple to Artemis [Diana] was fourth largest in the ancient world). Thereafter, they were run by Persia (today's Iran) after Lydia was overwhelmed by the meteoric rise of Persia as an imperial power. In 499 B.C., when Greek cities in Asia Minor rebelled against Persian control, forces from the Greek mainland came to their aid. Darius (in 490) and Xerxes (in 480 B.C.), retaliating against the helpers, launched two unsuccessful invasions. Persian defeats meant the mainland was temporarily secure from foreigners, but prominent Greek cities soon relapsed into hostilities between themselves. The long years of fighting between Sparta and Athens (known as the Peloponnesian War) exhausted everyone. Shifting loyalties continued and, by 386 B.C., Athens and Sparta conceded Persian dominion over the Greek cities of mainland Asia Minor in exchange for recognition of their own claims. That peace did not last long either, with endless acts of violence and destruction continuing even when patriotic motives were not obvious. Macedonia had been largely exempt from this miserable state of affairs. Spared from Greco-Persian political wrangling, Macedonia was not part of the treaty which forfeited the Greek cities of Asia Minor. So when Philip II, who had been acting as regent in Macedon, made himself king in 358 B.C., he and his highly trained standing army ultimately accomplished what the Greeks needed but could not achieve. Philip imposed peace. Summoning the Greek city-states to a conference in Corinth, Philip emerged as leader of a Greek federation which would wage an offensive against Persia. Before he could enact his plans of war, however, Philip was murdered in 336. Executing his father's assassin without asking questions, and having anyone else who threatened his position as Philip's heir killed as well, Alexander - at age 20 - became king of Macedonia. Anyone who thought he was not up to the job would soon learn otherwise.

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It is often said that Alexander's army made him great - but his murdered father, Philip of Macedon, made the army great. Using professional soldiers, not a citizen-based militia, Philip created different types of military units which gave him diversified strength. Infantry, cavalry, foot soldiers who employed extra-long spears (called a sarissa), and elite foot guardsmen (called hypaspists) all made the Macedonian army a formidable fighting machine. Alexander, who had fought with his father against Athens in the Battle of Chaeronea, thus inherited a standing army which employed unusual instruments of war and unique battle formations. Typical Macedonian battle formation under Philip and Alexander. Typical "hammer and anvil" tactics of the Macedonian army under Philip and Alexander. The sarissa was a Macedonian weapon which was often fifteen-feet long. Soldiers, in a battle formation called the Macedonia phalanx. The phalanx with front weapons extended. Macedonians were known as great horsemen and Macedonian Companions rode with the King. Bronze helmets, typical of the time, were not unique to the Macedonian army. Solidifying his position soon after taking power, Alexander marched south into Greece and freed Greek cities from Persian rule. Heading north to Gordium (the capital of ancient Phrygia), he made relatively short work of a famous legend. Whoever untied the Gordian Knot, it was said, would rule the world. Alexander approached the problem in a different way. He undid the knot by simply slashing it with his sword, then unraveling it. His conquests were just beginning.

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Of all the foes Alexander wanted to best, his primary objective was Darius III. Head of the Persian Empire, Darius was used to winning his battles. But he was not accustomed to opposing adversaries whose military genius and strategy were equal to, or better than, his own. While Alexander used the strategies and battle formations developed by his father, his ability to improvise on short notice was just one mark of his outstanding leadership. One of his early plans was to liberate the Greek cities along the eastern Aegean Sea, on the mainland of Asia Minor. Crossing the sea with his men, Alexander's first stop was at Troy where he visited the grave of Achilles and paid homage to the gods. (That moment was artistically depicted, nearly 2000 years later, by the German painter Johann Schoenfeld.) He then turned south with his men, personally leading the Companion Cavalry. Darius, meanwhile, was at his remote capital in Susa. Alexander's reputation was still in-the-making, and the Persian leader thought his troops could be capably managed by the governors of his western provinces. (They were aided by a Greek mercenary, Memnon the Rhodian, who had already proved his mettle in prior Macedonian battles). The battle at the Granicus, a river in Asia Minor, sent Darius the message that Alexander was no ordinary foe. In 333, Alexander met Darius at the mountain pass at Issus. Although greatly outnumbered, the Macedonian leader took advantage of the narrow field of battle and worked it to his advantage. Not used to such brilliant strategy from his opponents, Darius was shocked by Alexander's ability. A famous mosaic, discovered in the excavations of Pompeii, graphically depicts Darius' surprise. Believed to be based on a contemporary drawing, the Pompeii mosaic is the source of the most commonly used pictures of both Alexander and Darius. The work is now called the "Alexander Mosaic" and was originally found at the House of the Faun in Pompeii. It is maintained today at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli (the National Archeology Museum in Naples). It is believed the entire work portrays the battle of Issus. Despite his surprise at Alexander's tactics, Darius escaped. Thereafter, marching down the Mediterranean Coast, into Damascus, Alexander captured the family and war chest of the Persian ruler. As he victoriously continued down the Phoenician coast, he easily captured every city except Tyre. It took a seven-month siege before that city gave up as well. Having secured the eastern Aegean, Alexander and his men headed to Egypt where he founded the city of Alexandria. Ultimately one of the cultural centers of the known world, it was home of the famous lighthouse (one of the wonders of the ancient world) and of the Great Library (a center of learning until it was destroyed). Chasing Darius was still on Alexander's mind as he left Egypt in 331. Having captured territory between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (today's Iraq), Alexander's men found the Persians at the Plain of Gaugamela. This battle, and its aftermath, would mark a turning point for the Persian leader.

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The Macedonians (who were grossly outnumbered) wanted to attack the Persians at night, but Alexander would not take advantage of Darius' vulnerability. Believing he would ultimately defeat the Persian ruler, Philip's son wanted to face his enemy on the battlefield in the light of day. Only then, he reasoned, after a fairly fought fight, would Darius cease to wage war against the Macedonians. The exact location of the Gaugamela battle is not clear. Many scholars think it was at Tel Gomel which is east of modern Mosul. Historical descriptions paint the scene as just east of the Tigris River. The fighting took place in October, 331 B.C. Darius wanted to fight on a flat plain which would benefit his numerically superior and specially recruited cavalry forces. He also used scythed chariots and, before the battle, ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize the chariots' effectiveness. Before the Battle of Gaugamela, Macedonians had never seen elephants. Darius used about fifteen of them - some scholars think the number was as high as fifty - supported by Indian chariots. Alexander, meanwhile, personally commanded the Macedonian right flank. Alexander's men slaughtered the Persians, but once again Darius escaped - this time due, in large part, to strategic mistakes by Parmenion, Alexander's general. The former Persian emperor fled to Arbela (modern-day Arbil). (Note, however, the contemporary story of the battle, written on a cuneiform tablet, which states that Darius' troops deserted him. A Macedonian had thus supplanted the Persian Emperor as a ruler in Asia. Alexander was crowned in a lavish ceremony in Arbela. Darius, still on the run, was gone from the city by the time the Macedonians arrived. Alexander sent letters to all Greek cities in Asia Minor, advising them that he had banished tyranny from the land.

The rich cities of Babylon and Susa were the next Persian towns to fall. When he reached Persepolis, capital of the Persian Empire, Alexander allowed his army to rest. Four months later, before they left Persepolis, the Macedonians burned the royal palace. In 330, trouble developed in Alexander's inner circle. Allegations of a plot to kill him were brought against some of his officers, including Philotas, a lifelong friend. He was shortly executed. Months later, after a night of heavy drinking, Alexander's close friend Cleitus, son of Parmenion, hurtled insults against him. Annoyed, Alexander ran his spear through Cleitus. When he realized he'd killed his close Companion, Alexander was so upset he nearly committed suicide. Following the rest at Persepolis, Alexander continued to pursue Darius. When he finally caught up with him, Darius was already dead. His own men had killed him in his coach. Alexander rewarded the assassin's treachery with execution but gave Darius a royal funeral. Although Alexander and his men were winning victory after victory in Persia, there were major differences between Greek and Persian culture. Trying to reconcile some of those disparities, Alexander married Roxane, a Persian woman from Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan). He encouraged his men to likewise marry Persian women. Some of Alexander's troops thought their leader had gone too far when he began to wear Persian instead of Macedonian clothing. The sheer force of his magnetic personality, however, convinced them to stick with their general. He would next lead them to battle in India, the land of elephants.

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Although Alexander and his troops first encountered elephants at Gaugamela, scholars believe those 15-20 animals were not a major factor in the fight. That would come later, in India, at the battle of the Hydaspes. Horses, not accustomed to the sight of elephants and unfamiliar with their scent, can panic when they see such huge creatures. Such was also true of the Macedonian cavalry and their mounts. On the other hand, elephants - as the largest animals on earth - have no significant natural enemy except man. What type of elephant did Alexander and his army encounter during their time in India? Then, as now, there were two types of elephants: Asian (Elephas Maximus) and African (Loxodonta Africana). Asian elephants - like those faced by Alexander - are slightly smaller than African elephants. Both species can run as fast as 25 miles (40 km) per hour for short distances. Charging elephants (click on the top-left button and be patient as this video link loads) are an unbelievable sight. The Asian elephant (don't miss this link with nineteen different movies of Asian elephants in natural habitats), like its African relative, has a life span of about seventy years. But it is distinguished from the African elephant (there are thirty-two movie clips in this link, including a running herd on the third page) in that Elephas Maximus has much smaller ears, a flat forehead with two humps, and more toes and toenails on both its fore and hind feet. The highest point of an Asian elephant is its head; the highest point of an African elephant is its shoulders. Male and female African elephants have tusks, while female Asian elephants have none.

Because elephants eat so much, their teeth wear out. Over its lifetime, an adult typically has six different sets of teeth. When the last set wears out, the elephant could starve to death. The population of Asian elephants today is estimated between 35,000 and 50,000 in the wild with an additional 15,000 in captivity. They are endangered and a charging Elephas Maximus has been known to trample people to death - especially when humans move near the elephants' natural environment. It was a different story, however, on the day in 326 B.C. that Alexander and his men encountered elephants on an Indian battlefield. On that day, the animals would face a horde of fearless men intent on killing them.

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Ever the brilliant strategist, Alexander realized he would need a different type of army to fight in India. No Macedonian had ever been this far east. Alexander and his men had no pre-tested battle plans to adapt. Instinctively, Alexander knew he had to cut personnel, burn excess baggage and eliminate spoils of war. Wisely, he included Persian cavalrymen in his ranks and made a plan to fight against the Indian elephants his troops would surely face. In July of 326, when he and his men reached the Hydaspes (a river located in today’s Pakistan and now called Jhelum), they more than met their match with Porus, a renowned Indian leader. (This is the possible spot of the Indian camp.) Porus and his men fought with elephants which the Macedonians had first encountered at Gaugamela but had never seen in a charge. Even with their 200 elephants, the Indians were not able to withstand the Macedonian p