C. Find interesting sayings from Internet, books, newspapers and retell them in indirect speech.

UNIT 11. LANGUAGE PRACTICE, READING AND WRITING

I. Can, could, may, might - possibility

Main points: You use can to say that something is possible. You use could, might and may to indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think it is. We also use could have to say that there was a possibility of something happening in the past, but it didn’t happen.

 

A. Read and translate the text in writing. Underline the could have structures for a possibility in the past.

World War I

The outbreak of World War I in research papers is shown in the way that WWI came about as the result of a series of hasty actions by fervently nationalistic countries – and not due to the strategic advances of Germany or any other single European power. Austria-Hungary could have refrained from offering Serbia an unacceptable ultimatum. Russia could have abstained during the outbreak of WWI from mobilizing hastily, allowing the conflict to remain within the geographical boundaries of the Balkans, and France could have been more aggressive in restraining its Russian ally rather than issuing the Russians a “blank check.” As well, Britain could have been more assertive in warning of its impending involvement in a pan-European conflict in the outbreak of WWI, perhaps enough to deter the Germans from moving forward. German historians Zara Steiner and Luigi Albertine fiercely opposed Fischer’s theory on the outbreak of WWI as well, claiming that he had taken numerous historical quotes and documents out of context. Indeed, the so-called Fisher Thesis may have given the Germans a tad too much credit – according to Fischer, the Germans first encouraged Austria-Hungary to place the Serbian ultimatum, then pushed the monarchy to declare war on Serbia when their terms were not met. It is far more plausible that the cause of World War I was the result of a series of miscalculations and political blunders that was not meant to be had the European rulers and statesmen understood the effects their actions would have had on those of others.

B. Which of theses things could you have done if you have lived a hundred years ago? Which things couldn’t you have done? Write six sentences like this one.

A hundred years ago I could have ridden a horse, but I couldn’t have flown in an airplane.

flown in an aeroplane gone to the cinema learned English listen to Beethoven listened to The Beetles played chess played computer games read Ernest Hemingway read Shakespeare ridden a horse traveled by train watched television

 

 

С. Complete these sentences using was able and could

Another reason the empire (1)…. to survive external threat was that she was blessed with fairly weak antagonists who were, at times, otherwise engaged. Russia and Austria were the adjacent European powers that (2)…., conceivably, threaten the empire’s very existence, but neither of these (3)…. in the eighteenth century to throw their full weight against Turkey. They had other foreign policy concerns and these worked to protect Turkey. Austria and Russia acted as checks upon each other from time to time and Prussia was a check on Catherine the Great’s move to the south.

 

UNIT 12. LANGUAGE PRACTICE, WATCHING VIDEO AND WRITING

I. Linking words.

Similar meanings to and: also, besides, what’s more Similar meanings to but: despite this, however Similar meanings to so: as the result, for that reason, therefore

The words in the box are used to join sentences and link ideas. Put them in the text.

also, besides, what’s more as the result, for that reason, therefore, despite this, however

HOMELESS IN THE USA

The city streets of America’s urban metropolises have remained crowded with homeless men and women for decades. (1) …. government agencies, religious organizations, and community outreach programs have aided in the health and welfare of the homeless but none have solved the problem or offered any long-term answers to homelessness. (2) …. at the root of the issue lie mental illness concerns, government bureaucracy, and humanitarian apathy towards a national problem that is often easier to turn away from than to look straight in the eyes of the homeless for the answer. (3) …. the solution appears to lie somewhere between the hands of the caring and the powers of government. An unprecedented trend is emerging in America to merge the division between church and state and work towards the mutual goals of solving social problems as a united force.

(4) …. the magnitude of the problem of homelessness in America is incontrovertible. According to the Homes for Homeless organization:

• The typical homeless family is a 20-year-old mother with children under the age of 6 (in the early 80's it consisted of a middle aged woman with adolescent children).
• Today's homeless mother has probably never been married, has an incomplete education, and has never been employed.
• 22% of homeless mothers grew up in foster care.
• 22% reported they lived in shelters as a child.
• 80% of homeless families moved two or more times before becoming homeless.
• 63% doubled up with friends or relatives before becoming homeless.

(5) …. the need for affordable housing reaches into the middle class, as the line between poverty and survival becomes blurred. Take for example the cost of housing in San Francisco. The Bay Area is a classic example of the need to serve people above and below the poverty line. According to Davis, federal guidelines assert that no more than 30 percent of a person’s income should go for housing. A household earning $18,000 a year would then spend $450 a month on housing. However, the median rent in San Francisco is $700, illustrating the need for affordable housing above low-income standards. These numbers cut across race lines and also illustrate the state of homelessness among racial discrimination lines. According to U.S. Conference of Mayors Task Force on Hunger and Homelessness (based on statistics from 26 cities between November 1, 1992 and October 31, 1993) and data from Census Bureau and Bureau of Labor Statistics, of the homeless.

GETTING READY FOR THE EXAM