Footwear Impressions and Tool Marks

A latent fingerprint is an example of a two-dimensional impression. A footwear impression in mud or a tool mark on a window frame is an example of a three-dimensional impression. If it's not possible to submit the entire object containing the impression to the crime lab, a CSI makes a casting at the scene.

This cast is a student sample. According to Mr. Clayton, footprints found at a crime scene seldom produce such perfect specimens.

A casting kit might include multiple casting compounds (dental gypsum, Silicone rubber), snow wax (for making a cast in snow), a bowl, a spatula and cardboard boxes to hold the casts.

If a CSI finds a footwear impression in mud, she'll photograph it and then make a cast. To prepare the casting material, she combines a casting material and water in a Ziploc-type bag and kneads it for about two minutes, until the consistency is like pancake batter. She then pours the mixture into the edge of the track so that it flows into the impression without causing air bubbles. Once the material overflows the impression, she lets it set for at least 30 minutes and then carefully lifts the cast out of the mud. Without cleaning the cast or brushing anything off it (this would destroy any trace evidence), she puts the cast into a cardboard box or paper bag for transport to the lab.

For toolmark impressions, a cast is much harder to use for comparison than it is with footwear. If it's not feasible to transport the entire item containing the tool mark, a CSI can make a silicone-rubber cast and hope for the best. There are two types of tool marks a CSI might find at a crime scene:

· Impressed: A hard object contacts a softer object without moving back and forth (for example, a hammer mark on a door frame). The tool mark is an impression of the tool's shape. It's difficult to make a definite match with an impressed tool mark.

· Striated: A hard object contacts a softer object and moves back and forth (for example, pry marks on a window frame). The tool mark is a series of parallel lines. It's easier to make a definite match with a striated tool mark.

In toolmark analysis, the lab might determine what sort of tool made the mark and whether a tool in evidence is the tool that made it. It can also compare the tool mark in evidence to another toolmark to determine if the marks were made by the same tool.

Firearms
If a CSI finds any firearms, bullets or casings at the scene, she puts gloves on, picks up the gun by the barrel (not the grip) and bags everything separately for the lab. Forensic scientists can recover serial numbers and match both bullets and casings not only to the weapon they were fired from, but also to bullets and casings found at other crime scenes throughout the state (most ballistics databases are statewide). When there are bullet holes in the victim or in other objects at the scene, specialists can determine where and from what height the bullet was fired from, as well as the position of the victim when it was fired, using a laser trajectory kit. If there are bullets embedded in a wall or door frame, the CSI cuts out the portion of the wall or frame containing the bullet -- digging the bullet out can damage it and make it unsuitable for comparison.

Documents
A CSI collects and preserves any diaries, planners, phone books or suicide notes found at a crime scene. He also delivers to the lab any signed contracts, receipts, a torn up letter in the trash or any other written, typed or photocopied evidence that might be related to the crime. A documents lab can often reconstruct a destroyed document, even one that has been burned, as well as determine if a document has been altered. Technicians analyze documents for forgery, determine handwriting matches to the victim and suspects, and identify what type of machine was used to produce the document. They can rule out a printer or photocopier found at the scene or determine compatibility or incompatibility with a machine found in a suspect's possession.

Whenever a CSI discovers a piece of evidence at the scene, she photographs it, logs it, recovers it and tags it. An evidence tag may include identification information such as time, date and exact location of recovery and who recovered the item, or it may simply reflect a serial number that corresponds to an entry in the evidence log that contains this information. The crime scene report documents the complete body of evidence recovered from the scene, including the photo log, evidence recovery log and a written report describing the crime scene investigation.

Analyzing the Evidence: Forensic Science

 

The first forensics lab in the United States opened in 1923 in Los Angeles. In 1932, the FBI established its own forensics lab to serve police departments and other investigating authorities all over the country. The FBI lab is one of the largest in the world.

The Denver Crime Lab at the Colorado Bureau of Investigation provides evidence collection and laboratory analysis for any police department in Colorado that requests its services. It also conducts state investigations that don't fall under the jurisdiction of any local authority.

Some specialty departments in the Denver Crime Lab include:

· Latent fingerprints and impressions
Develop latent fingerprints; analyze and compare fingerprints, footwear and tire impressions; run fingerprints through the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS, which utilizes the FBI database) for comparison against hundreds of millions of prints

CBI technicians use these camera setups to photograph recovered prints to use in comparison and for running through the AFIS system. On the left is an old-school Polaroid setup, and on the right is a digital-camera setup. Mr. Clayton prefers the Polaroid results.

· Trace evidence
Run GSR analysis; identify and compare samples of soil, glass, fibers and paint

· Chemistry
Conduct analysis and comparison of illicit drugs, explosives and unknown chemicals

· Computer Crimes
Recover evidence from computers; perform computer enhancement on audio or video evidence

· Firearms and toolmark identification
Identify firearms; test firearms to establish barrel pattern and distance of gun from entrance wound; identify and compare bullets, casings and toolmark impressions

· Serology and DNA
Conduct body fluid analysis, including DNA analysis for blood stains, semen and hair for identification and comparison

Comparison microscope setup in the CBI serology lab

· Questioned documents
Detect forgery and alterations; conduct handwriting comparisons; reconstruct destroyed documents; identify and compares printers, typewriters or copiers used to produce a document

Often, a piece of evidence passes through more than one department for analysis. Each department delivers a complete report of the evidence it analyzed for the case, including the actual results (numbers, measurements, chemical contents) and any expert conclusions the scientists have drawn from these results. The CSI in charge might compile the results and deliver them to the lead detective on the case, or the lab might send the results directly to the detective squad.

On the Stand

The role of a crime scene investigator doesn't end when he completes his evidence report. It doesn't even end when the lab results related to that evidence are delivered to the detectives on the case. A big part of a CSI's job is testifying in court about the evidence he collected, the methods he used to recover it and the number of people who came into contact with it before it ended up as the prosecution's Exhibit D. And the defense attorney's job is to attack the evidence, which sometimes means attacking the person who collected it. This is why search warrants, evidence logs, photographs and extremely detailed reports are so critical to the CSI process. The defense will try to get every piece of incriminating evidence thrown out of court. The legality of the search, the untainted preservation of the evidence and the full, undisputable documentation of the crime scene are prime considerations in a crime scene investigation.