Speak on the Style of Scientific Prose, its functional and linguistic characteristics. Identify problems a translator may encounter dealing with the scientific prose style. Do the practical task.

The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. the language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid(лишенный) of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

1. The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence.

2. The second equally important feature of this style is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science.

3. A third characteristic feature of scientific style is sentence – patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. A hypothesis must be based on facts already known. Therefore, every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. The writer’s own ideas are shaped in formulae, arguments, etc., that is, in sentences giving reasons for further conclusions.

4. A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose is the use of quotations and references.

5. A fifth feature of the style under discussion is the frequent use of foot-notes(сноски, типа ставят цифру, а снизу пишут подробнее), not of the reference kind, but digressive in character.

6. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. It is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions and impersonal scientific ‘we’ followed by the verbs suppose, assume, conclude, infer, point out, etc.

 

Speak on Homonyms, their classification and sources. Illustrate your answer with examples. Identify problems a translator may encounter dealing with homonyms. Do the practical task.

Classification of homonyms
Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning. Traditional classification includes 3 types of homonyms:
1. homonyms which are the same in sound and spelling are traditionally termed homonyms proper (bank – a shore; bank-an institute for receiving, lending, exchanging and safeguarding money; school-косяк рыбы; school - школа).
2. homophones – they are the same in sound but different in spelling (night-knight; piece –peace).
3. homographs – these are words which are the same in spelling but different in sound (bow [bau]-поклон; bow [bэu]-лук; to lead [ li:d] – to conduct on the way, go before to show the way; lead [led] – a heavy, rather soft metal)
Homonyms should be distinguished from polycemantic words, because homonyms – we discuss 2 different forms with their own lexical and semantic structure, polycemantic – only one word (homonyms – 2 different words, polycemantic – 2 different meanings).

 

Classification:
1. lexical homonyms – differ in lexical meaning only, grammatical meaning is the same (one and the same part of speech)
2. lexico-grammatical homonyms – differ both lexical and grammatical meanings (different parts of speech) Ex: pale, adj – to pale, verb; reading- {Present Participle, gerund, Verbal noun.
3. grammatical homonyms – differ in grammatical meaning only, the lexical meaning is the same (brothers – plural; brother’s – possessive case)
Partial Homonyms –are those one which are the same only in one form of their grammatical paradigm (mine – шахта; mine – possessive noun (first form is my)).

 

Sources of Homonyms
- phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result of such changes, two or more words which were formerly pronounced differently may develop identical sound forms and thus become homonyms - Night and knight, to knead and to need.
- Borrowing is another source of homonyms. Match, n. ("a game; a contest of skill, strength") is native, and match, n. ("a slender short piece of wood used for producing fire") is a French borrowing.
- Word-building
conversion - comb, n. — to comb, v., pale, adj. — to pale, v., to make, v. — make, n. they are the same in sound and spelling but refer to different categories of parts of speech, are called lexico-grammatical homonyms
Shortening fan, n. in the sense of "an enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor, singer, etc." is a shortening produced from fanatic. Its homonym is a Latin borrowing fan, n. which denotes an implement for waving lightly to produce a cool current of air. The noun rep, n. denoting a kind of fabric (cf. with the R. репс) has three homonyms made by shortening: rep, n. (< repertory), rep, n. (< representative), rep, n. (< reputation)'', all the three are informal words.
- sound-imitation - bang, n. ("a loud, sudden, explosive noise") — bang, n. ("a fringe of hair combed over the forehead"). Also: mew, n. ("the sound a cat makes") — mew, n. ("a sea gull") — mew, n. ("a pen in which poultry is fattened") — mews ("small terraced houses in Central London").
- Two or more homonyms can originate from different meanings of the same word when, for some reason, the semantic structure of the word breaks into several parts. This type of formation of homonyms is called split polysemy.
board, n. — a long and thin piece of timber
board, n. — daily meals, esp. as provided for pay,
e. g. board, n. — an official group of persons who direct or supervise some activity, e. g. a board
of directors

The Romantic period in English literature began in the late 1700s and lasted through the mid-1800s. Romanticism focuses on the emotional side of human nature, individualism, the beauty of the natural world and the simplicity of common people. Romantic authors value sentimental, heartfelt feelings and emotional experiences over historical and scientific facts.

In the period from 1786 to 1830 two generations of Romantic poets permanently affected the nature of English language and literature. Usually, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who wrote most of their major works from 1786 to 1805, are regarded as the first generation of the English Romantic poets.

George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats, who produced their major works between 1810 to 1824, are regarded as the second generation of English Romantics.

The Lake Poets introduced into poetry short forceful words and constructions of everyday speech. They brought sound and colour into verse. They appreciated folklore and national art and insisted that poetry should be linked with folk traditions of a nation. All of them were humanists.

Lyrical Ballads contains some of the early treatments of subjects and themes by Wordsworth and Coleridge that would occupy the bulk of each poet’s oeuvre. These subjects and themes include the relationship between humanity and nature, the psychology of the human heart, the fascination with the supernatural, and etc.

Speak on A.Conan Doyle’s contribution to the development of English Science Fiction. The main themes of his science fiction novels.

Arthur Conan Doyle’s epitaph can also serve as an introduction to the themes of his novels, both those that feature actual medieval settings and those that center on Sherlock Holmes. Doyle’s central character is always the knight on a quest, living and battling according to chivalric ideals. Micah Clarke, Alleyne Edricson, and Sir Nigel Loring all engage in real battles; Sherlock Holmes combats bad guys on behalf of distressed young women and naive and frightened young men.

Define the notions of text. Explain the main classification types of a text. Comment on seven standards of textuality. Illustrate your answer with examples.

Text – structural and semantic unit used in language communication. Has minimal borderline, contains no less than 2 components, complete utterances. Presupposes existence of a certain connection between its elements and borderlines. Contains special connections – conjunctions, which help to organize utterances into text.

There are 2 types of text: 1. Monolog (usually used in written form), 2. Dialog (usually used orally).