Names of Paradigms Used to Form the Sentences

Personal Pronouns Paradigm Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense Paradigm Particles Paradigm

I

³⁵ Archer J. Honour Among Thieves. - London: Harper Collins, 1994. ³⁶ Our definition of replacements somewhat differs from the viewpoints of other scholars the reason being the specific target audience of this Manual. The Manual is targeted to the students of non-linguistic disciplines with only basic linguistic awareness that is why we try to make our explanations simple and practical rather than present a detailed linguistic classification of translation pa-

Prepositions Paradigm to do

Noun Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна

Adjectives Paradigm each кожний

Adverbs Paradigm none зазвичай

Noun Cases Paradigm Common Case pod. відм.

Adjective Cases Paradigm none pod. відм.

Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements.

Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the follow­ing example:

No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted. -He встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.

The replacements are necessary because English and Ukrainian pos­sess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is very important for translation and explains many translation problems.

Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device. One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed in any translation from English into Ukrainian and even more so — from Ukrainian into English.

The following basic types of replacements are observed in English-Ukrainian translation:

1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice Para­digms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; re­placement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by Pre­sent, Past by Present, etc.

2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English /see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).

3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative

one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15 Interpreta­tion: Professional Skills and Training)

Replacements of all kinds are so common in English-Ukrainian translation that even a beginner is sure to use this device more than once, so to save space we shall give examples in the attached exercises.

Addition

•► Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensa­tion of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language

Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In English, being an analytical language the syntactic and semantic relations are often implicitly expressed through order of syntactic elements and context environment whereas in predominantly synthetic Ukrainian these relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words). When translat­ing from English into Ukrainian a translator is to visualize the implicit objects and relations through additions. So-called 'noun clusters' fre­quently encountered in newspaper language are especially rich in 'hid­den' syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by addition in translation:

Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні

fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на

паливо

peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною

віковою групою

Omission

Ш QUESTIONS

 

What are the basic translation devices? What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give exam­ples. Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning What is replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replace­ments in practical translation? Give examples. What is addition? Give definition and examples. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English translation.

4. 5.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Compare the English text and its translation into Ukrainian. Com­ment on translation devices used.

ШЬ Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text consid­ered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistics

Omission is the opposite of addition - to understand it consider the literal translation into English of the above noun clusters from their Ukrainian translation and compare these translations with the original English text.

Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні - Green Party money in­tended for the elections at the federal level

fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на паливо -protests related to the increase of the fuel tax

peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною віковою групою — goods designed for use by certain age groups

Furthermore, the meaning of their constituents being the same, a number of expressions do not require translation into Ukrainian in full, e.g., null and void - недійсний.

So, as one can see, proper omissions are important and necessary translation devices rather than translator's faults as some still tend to be­lieve.

Thus, basic translation devices discussed in this lecture are, indeed, the only 'tool kit' available to a translator, however, a big question re­mains unanswered: Where and when to use that or another device? A complete answer is hardly possible, but we shall try, at least, to give some recommendations in the lectures that follow.

WHY THE BEST? The New York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999

There may be less agree­ment than ever about what it is. But the concept has become an essential tool. The Best has be­come a search engine. By FRANK RICH

Some nine decades later, the historian Peter N. Stearns disinterred the old Times essay and, while finding it not with­out insight, noted the con­spicuous omission of «an amazing number of develop­ments that we now consider to have been crucial in the 19th century.» Among the missing were the abolition of slavery, the artistic revolution of Im-

^ЧОМУ НАЙКРАЩЕ? «Нью-Йорк Тайме Мегезин», 1 червня 1999 p. Автор: Френк Річ

Може, зараз існує більше роз­біжностей щодо тлумачення слова «найкращий», ніж їх було коли-небудь до цього, але концепція «найкращого» стала суттєвим засо­бом своєрідної селекції.

Історик Пітер Стернз розко­пав у старих номерах «Тайме» есе, яке побачило світ приблизно де­в'яносто років тому і, зауважив, що йому не бракує глибини. Він звернув увагу на відсутність у есе згадки про «дивовижну кількість подій і фактів, які ми зараз вважа­ємо важливими для XIX століття». Пройшли непоміченими: пова­лення рабства, мистецька револю­ція імпресіоністів і майже все, що

 

стосується Азії. А сьогодні «Тайме» розкопує завали на го­рищі історії і перетрушує минуле тисячоліття у пошуках Найкращо­го. Ні, не десятка кращих і не сотні найліпших, а саме Найкращого. Якщо хтось помітить у цих пошуках абсурдистську нотку, ти­пову для XX сторіччя, то це так і було заплановано. У 1999 році сам цей вираз «найкращий» визначає словесну бійку або, якщо вислови­тись більш конструктивно, прово­кує дебати.

pressionism and virtually the entirety of Asia.

Now The Times is upping the ante exponentially and ran­sacking an entire millennium in search of the Best. Not the 10 best, or the 100 best, but the Best. If you detect a distinctly 20th-century absurdist grace note in this endeavor, it's inten­tional. In 1999, the very term «the Best» amounts to fighting words-or, to put it more con­structively, a provocation to debate.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian, using the suggested, and, if needed, other devices:

a)partitioning:

Similar artifacts have been found at sites throughout North and South America, indicating that life was probably well established in much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. One result of these restrictions was to reduce the appeal of nativists organizations³⁷

d) replacement:

1. Everyone was talking but stopped the moment she entered the room. 2. The establishment of the United Nations Office in November 1992 followed the signing in New York a host agreement between Ukraine's Foreign Minister and the United Nations Secretary-General. 3. I hear that you have been promoted. Congratulations! 4.Please be quiet. You re continually interrupting! 5.Pay no attention to him. He is just being naughty. 6.When he was rich, he used to stay in this hotel. 7. Scien­tists are on the point of making a vital breakthrough. No sooner did the President start his speech than he was interrupted. 8.Principal hereby appoints Agent as its non-exclusive service provider. 9.This Agreement

may not be amended or supplemented except by written agreement signed by both parties hereto. lO.The terms used hereunder shall have the following meaning. 11. Each Party may, within 20 days after receiving the minutes, suggest amendments thereto.

e) addition:

Publications on Foreign Policy; the United Nations; Ministry of Health

. J) omission:

a) The Court of Justice; null and void; rejected and omitted; as far
back as; as early as; he is head and shoulders above his comrades; prim
and proper; power to execute and perform the duties and responsibili­
ties; continue in full force and effect; foreign policy problem; electoral
base; political scientist;

b) Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Члени Організації
Об'єднаних Націй; юристи з визнаним авторитетом у галузі
міжнародного права; постійна Палата Третейського Суду; взяти на
себе обов'язки; подати заяву про відставку; у порядку спрощеного
судочинства; у випадку рівності голосів суддів голос старшого за
віком дає перевагу; термін повноважень п'яти суддів закінчується
через три роки.

g) antonymous translation:

Valid with diploma only. Keep off the grass. Take it easy. Take it or leave it. She was not like a bird. Staff only. It won't be long before the help arrives. It wasn't until 1983 that Connor could afford a holiday abroad. It would take these first North Americans thousands of years more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to what is now the United States. The armed forces shall not be used save in the common interests.

Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, making necessary transformations.

Primaries; academia; turnout (at the polls); caucus; Ministry of Health; the Exchequer; to investigate; to accommodate; airborne; breeze; refinery; publicist; body of independent judges.

 

Nativist organizations - організації «американців за походженням».

Ex. 4. Translate into Ukrainian. Comment on translation devices used.

DICK WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT

Tales of cats that bring gpod fortune to their owners can be found in
cultures throughout the world. One of the most famous is the English
legend of Dick Whittington, a poor orphan in the late 1300s, whose only
possession was a cat. Dick worked in a rich traders house, but was ill-
treated and ran away. A peal of bells tells him to return and he does so to
find that his cat has been sold for a great fortune to a Moorish ruler who І^ф
is plagued by rats. ^

■a

„фґ>\

The story of Dick Whittington and his cat is a familiar one to most schoolchildren. A poor orphan comes to London and finds work in the_v kitchens of a rich merchant-trader called Fitzwarren. One day Dick earns a penny by shining a rich man's shoes,an,d buys a cat to keep the vermin in his room at bay. Fitzwarren allows his employees to put one item on his ship that could be traded abroad,. The employee will then get all the profits. Dick had nothing^xceptW cat, and so he reluctantly gives up

f. ніг

ІД^ *

his pet.

^ _1JMT,.

«Л><Я& STORM AT SEA ^

^ о^Ц^Опе day, Fitzwarren's ship encounters a fierce storm and is blown into uncharted territory on the African Barbary coast. The Moorish king, «dining with the captain, tells him that he will pay a fortune if anyone can rid him of a plague of rats. The captain, who has seen how Dick's cat has rid the ship of vermin, gives the cat to the king. The cat immediately sets about its work and then goes to sit on the queen's lap, purring. The king is so happy that he gives the captain gold and jewels worth ten times the value of the entire ship's cargo. Dick becomes a rich man.

Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF EQUIVALENTS

This Lecture:

• outlines basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents, i.e. context, situation and background information;

• defines context varieties and their influence on the choice of translation equivalents;

• shows the role of cultural background in equivalent selection.

From the previous lectures and your own translation experience you know that the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and background information. This lecture presents more de­tailed information on the role these and some other important factors play in the process of translation equivalent selection.

Thus, the main factors are context, situation and background infor­mation. They are well-known, but, regrettably, their definitions by vari­ous scholars substantially differ.

To start with, let us define the context³⁸.

Ш* For the purpose of practical translation we shall call the context the length of speech (text) necessary to specify the meaning and translation of a given word.

Also for the purpose of practical translation we shall distinguish be­tween immediate and general context.

See also: Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь. - M., 1999.

•* Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically related words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a given word and forms the basis for its translation.

Note the words 'forms the basis' in the above definition - these words are critical indeed, because immediate context is seldom sufficient for the proper choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is lim­ited to a sentence, though in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is sufficient as an immediate context.

However, to get all information necessary for translation one should take into account the general context as well.

потрібна, окрім релігії, щоб вижити у час, коли нове тисячоліття летить прямо на нас; це ілюзія, що ми ще можемо зупинити годинник і знайти спосіб, навіть у цю останню мить, щоб підкорити простір і час.

Perhaps, you will agree that in the first instance the immediate con­text is all that one needs for translation whereas to translate properly the text of the second example one will need broader context and, probably, some additional background information as well. This brings us to the first conclusion:

•* The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immedi­ate and general context.

 

Ш* General context is the source text as a whole.

To feel the difference compare the translation of the following two examples.

After becoming involved in city politics, he was rewarded for his services to the King by being made Lord Mayor of London, serving four terms be­tween 1397 and 1420.

Він став брати активну участь у політичному житті міста, і король відзначив його заслуги перед короною, призначивши лорд-мером Лондона. На цій посаді він залишався чотири строки - з 1397 по 1420 рік.

The hope that we can still pare down our choices to a list of essentials is the other faith, besides religion, that we need to survive as the new millen­nium rushes toward us - the illusion that we can stop the clock and some­how, even at this late date, master space and time.

Сподівання, ніби-то ми все ще в змозі відмовитися від усього зайвого і обрати найсуттєвіше, - це своєрідна віра, яка нам

Any source text, however, consists of words and word combinations which you are to translate to finally end up in a target text. And to say the least, words and word combinations are very different as to the problems they present for translation.

Compare, for example, words and word combinations in the left and right columns of the Table below.

 

organization	insider
society	power-broker
territory	mainstream
development	hot button
region	marginal

I

It is easy to note that the entries in the left column present no prob-

lem for translation whereas to find proper equivalents for those in the right column one needs at least broad context and desirably also a piece of background information.

The explanation lies in the fact that unlike those in the left column the right column words are relatively new language formations standing for also relatively new phenomena of the American culture. Then the next conclusion may be:

You will get more of such texts in the exercises after this lecture that prove the final conclusion³⁹:

•* To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the cultural background underlying the source text being translated.

9Ґ The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and word combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the un­derlying cultural background.

To get a better idea of the above equivalent selection factor consider an example:

The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Para­dise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bohemians have in the last genera­tion morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The long­haired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely disappeared as a result.

These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian prede­cessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products of that culture, and they like it.

Консервативний коментатор Девід Брукс у своєму есе «Бубо у раю» стверджує, що стара буржуазія і стара богема в останньому поколінні переродилися у те, що він називає «бубо» - буржуазна боге­ма. Колишні патлаті носії вільного духу в сандалях та яскравих сорочках сидять зараз у респектабельних офісах, і в результаті зникло все те, що, здавалось би, відділяло культуру протесту від бізнес-культури. На відміну від членів Ротаріанських клубів, місце яких вони зараз посіли, «бубо», очевидно, менш схильні до пуританських хрестових походів проти попкультури, бо вони самі є продуктом цієї культури, і ця культура їм до вподоби.

We purposefully include in the exercises after this lecture the texts partly or fully shown elsewhere in this Manual. We think it is worth analyzing these texts at a different angle.

 

ЕЗ QUESTIONS

1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents?

2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of translation equivalents?

3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of transla­tion equivalents?

4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation equiva­lents of individual words and word combinations?

5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation equivalents?

j§J EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents.

BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICA'S CULTURE WARS

CONTINUE The International Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler

The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro­tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just

petered out.

Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.»

It makes you wonder what country they're living in.

If Americans don't hear the crackle, it might be because the bombs detonating overhead drown it out. If Americans look around they will see that abortion, gun control, environmental protection, gay rights and, lately, campaign finance reform are still hot-button issues, and neither

side seems especially willing to lay down arms. If anything, they seem emboldened after an election that showed the citizenry to be evenly di­vided. No one wants to give ground for fear the tide of battle will turn. But while the political war over social issues rages on, what these observ­ers might have really sensed is an increasing tolerance in the popular cul­ture for things once considered unacceptably outside the mainstream. Just a decade ago, there were no gays in television situation comedies. Now NBC's «Will Grace,» one of the most popular sitcoms, celebrates gay characters, and no one seems particularly lathered about it.

A decade ago, television commercials barely hinted at sex, lest they offend potential consumers. Now they hurl sexual innuendo, and no one bats an eye.

More than a decade ago, Madonna scandalized polite society with the suggestion that a new romance made her feel like a virgin. Now radio plays the most sexually explicit music, and no one notices. One might be excused for assuming, then, that there has been a truce and that a new era of cultural coexistence has dawned. But in truth this is hardly a new state of affairs. The popular culture has always been more tolerant than the political culture, and the tension between the two has accounted, in part, for the launching of the culture wars. Although it is a chicken-and-egg question, cultural conservatives raise a taboo and purveyors of popu­lar culture violate it. Then the conservatives rail against the violation, and the purveyors of popular culture rise to the challenge and push the enve­lope. Then the conservatives howl over the latest transgression, and the popular culture transgresses once again. And so it goes. It is a dynamic and continuous process, a symbiosis not only between the so-called con­servatives and liberals but also between both of these cohorts and society generally. Without it the culture would be directionless, which is not only why culture wars will continue but also why America need them to continue. How dull the culture would be without them. Conservatives might be ascendant in politics, setting the agenda since at least the days of Ronald Reagan, but they are always the beleaguered ones in the war over the popular culture.

That discrepancy between political power and cultural power is something to which they have never quite been able to reconcile them­selves. Militant conservatives simply cannot fathom how one can vote Republican, profess to embrace conservative values and yet buy Eminem

CDs or watch NBC's «The West Wing» or go see R-rated movies. To them it is both inconsistent and a betrayal.

The barrier, as they see it, isn't between politics and culture but be­tween conservative values and liberal values. They won the political war, so how come their troops aren't carrying the cultural one, too? Much to their dismay, the answer is that there are two different sets of armies in these two theaters of combat. In the political theater you have the famil­iar forces of liberalism and conservatism. In the cultural one, you have a variegated group of pop culture consumers including political right-wingers on the one side, and a bellicose band of religious and moral con­servatives on the other. The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bo-hemians have in the last generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely disappeared as a result.

These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products of that culture, and they like it.

Despite their heated rhetoric and noise, cultural conservatives just don't have the numbers.

When the culture wars began in America 150 years ago, it was be­cause elites and aristocrats, a tiny faction, feared and detested the rise of a genuinely democratic culture of almanacs, crime pamphlets, dime nov­els, penny newspapers, theatrical melodramas, popular music, circuses. As the elites saw it, this new culture, appealing to the masses, threatened the country by degrading its standards and morals. It was a culture of the proverbial lowest common denominator. As the 19th century pro­gressed, the elites gradually gave way to middle-class moralists and re­formers, but the moralists' arguments were essentially the same as the aristocrats'. Popular culture undermined American values. It promoted sex, violence,.vulgarity and disrespect for authority.

That was the argument when cultural conservatives were attacking saloon shows at the end of the 19th century, silent films, including the films of Charlie Chaplin, early in the 20th century, and sexual comedies in the 1920s and gangster pictures in the 1930s. It is still the argument

when they attack movie blockbusters, cutting-edge television programs and rock CDs.

In professing to save America from the toxin of popular culture, conservatives were also saving themselves. Popular culture promoted the sort of values that further marginalized the critics and made them seem even more old-fashioned and irrelevant. It is a war they cannot afford to lose, so they have to keep soldiering on no matter how inexorably the popular culture seems to advance. They don't seem to realize that this culture might not be a form of cultural illiteracy. It might be a form of rebellion for people who deliberately choose what is likely to infuriate cultural commissars intent on telling them what is good for them.

Since the days of Andrew lackson, people embraced the «trashy» in direct proportion to the critics' hatred of it, thus asserting their cultural independence and power. It is one of the reasons the popular culture often goes to extremes. At the extremes lies the greatest irritation value.

The culture wars might ebb and flow, but they will never end. Con­servatives cannot concede defeat, because to do so would end the hope of their worldview ever prevailing.

And consumers of popular culture need that opposition to give themselves a target, a boundary to transgress. Without conservatives to excoriate it, the popular culture would lose its subversive subtext and the sneaky thrill of violation that fuels it.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest items of cultural background neces­sary for translation.

ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS.
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001. &>Ш

There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincar­nate. With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and «innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.

People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier

on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal circum­stances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow That Changed History.

Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.

Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The no­blest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games. Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment.

Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multi­media age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-stars. The orbit of Sputnik's dog, Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of the world's youth.

The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.

Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES

This Lecture:

• introduces the classification of translation based on physical parameters;

• familiarizes the students with sub-categories of translation depending on genre;

• "outlines approaches translators use when handling these varieties.

Generally speaking all translation varieties have much in common -similar approaches, similar translation means and devices. According to physical parameters of translation process, however, translation is di­vided into written translation (or simply translation) and oral (or inter­pretation).

Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive in­terpretation and simultaneous interpretation. Chuchotage and at-sight in­terpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive inter­pretation despite minor differences in physical procedures.

Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories de­pending on the genre of the text being translated, such as literary transla­tion (fiction, poetry and publicistic texts), translation of official docu­ments, etc.

Ш* In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously with the original speech.

This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiari­ties of the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.

Ill

In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during simul­taneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices and approaches as well as determines the necessity of using special equip­ment for interpretation.

•* Consecutive interpreter generally prefers denotative approach since it is virtually impossible to memorize the entirety of the long text passages being translated and translate close to the source text.

Simultaneous interpreter is bound to keep to transformational approach interpreting the source text by small fragments.

•► Without special equipment simultaneous interpretation is im­possible.

The equipment for simultaneous interpretation comprises ear­phones, a microphone and a sound-insulated booth which serves as the interpreter's work-place. Because of physical and mental strain simulta­neous interpretation is considered the hardest and most stressing inter­pretation variety that requires special skills and qualities. It is regarded as a top class of interpretation and demands special vocation and training. Basic skills and training methods of consecutive and simultaneous inter­preters are discussed below in this Manual (Lecture 15).

As it has been already mentioned all translation varieties use similar approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and dur­ing the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either trans­formational or denotative approach.⁴⁰

Basically, the choice of one or another approach in written transla­tion depends on the genre of the text being translated rather than on the translation variety. In interpretation practice, however, there are two in­stances when the choice of approach is determined by the working envi­ronment.

⁴⁰ It is worth reminding here that according to transformational approach translation (interpretation) is performed by relatively small and regular syntac-tico-semantic fragments of the source sentences whereas the denotative approach is based on larger text fragments (at least, a sentence) with occasional equivalents (see more above).

It should be added mat in translation the decisions made by the translator are the results of thorough speculation and, ideally, are con­scious, whereas in interpretation the interpreter's decisions are mainly subconscious and intuitive.

As concerns translation devices, they are basically the same for all translation varieties. Moreover, it is hardly possible and feasible to ex­plain when to use which device - in many aspects translation is an art implying constant search for unprecedented decisions. However, in this Manual we attempt to file a sort of translation device inventory when it seems rational (Lectures 10 and 15). For example, one of the instances when particular devices are feasible is text compression during interpre­tation (see below in Lecture 15).

Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the ap­proach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.

At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive interpreta­tion. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in a source language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary consecutive interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this interpretation vari­ety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.

It is stylistical discrepancy between the written document and its oral interpretation: the styles of written documents (literary, official, etc.) radically differ from the colloquial style any interpreter tends to use in

interpretation (the expressions used in written language are different and the interpreter has to adapt to them which is not as easy as it might seem at first sight)⁴¹. To check the truthfulness of this statement do exercises after this lecture.

Completing this discussion of translation varieties it is worth dis­cussing the translation accessories and working environments of transla­tion and interpretation. The difference is substantial. A translator has at hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes no spe­cific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and redone if so required.

An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any out­side help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and derate the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation tasks are equally hard, but different as different are the required skills and training methods discussed below in the lectures that follow.

Similar difficulty is experienced by the interpreters when the speaker reads his paper prepared in advance rather than speaking off-hand.

О QUESTIONS

1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?

2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different transla­tion varieties?

3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and simulta­neous interpretation?

4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?

5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and interpreter?

\§} EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Interpret the text recording your interpretation, then translate in writ­ing. Compare the translation and interpretation, comment on the differ­ences.

The star had made seven enormously popular horror films, five of them talking pictures, and was being compared to the great American actor Lon Chaney. Yet nobody knew anything about Johann Ingersoll. There were no photographs of him except in the grotesque makeup he invented for each picture. His biography listed only his films. He never granted interviews and went to unusual lengths to protect his real iden­tity. Adding further to his mystique was Ingersoll's eccentric habit of ar­riving on the set each day in makeup and leaving the same way.

Ex. 2. Ask your fellow student to read the text for you. Interpret it in con­secutive manner recording the interpretation. Observe the difference between at-sight and regular consecutive translation.

HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.

Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to dem­onstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.

A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-

dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It is time now to do.' Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov­ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the performance of New Labour.

The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea­sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hur­dle, but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur­mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes -the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari­table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Gov­ernment teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel pro­tests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors.

The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench­ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re­gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the eco­nomic calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks countries.

The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reason ably adept at ruling, the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar governments.

The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its promises. Generally, the soi-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left

office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the electorate may be terrible.

Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov­ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved that historic goal of Labour.

Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern­ments dating back to Gladstone.

One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre­mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been com­pelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence for the Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop to­day - and would leave enduring legacies.

There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they have been enacted by a Labour government.

Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed. With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of making Labour 'the natural party of government' is closer to realisa­tion by Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.

But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal­lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re­mains coy of full candour.

Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are enough of them, can take you on a long journey.

Baby bonds are an eye-catching device to give the poor an asset stake in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds. When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold and innovatory ideas.

This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The out­standing governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westmin­ster voting system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is more aggressively hostile than ever.

The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan­cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner in Europe?

The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history. Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to change the future.

Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION

This Lecture:

• describes written translation subcategories;

• introduces the notion of hypertext;

• discusses challenges facing a literary translator.

As mentioned in the previous Lecture, written translation is divided into several subcategories depending on the genre of the texts being translated. Literary translation forms one of such subcategories being, perhaps, unique and the most sophisticated of all.

This translation variety requires special skills and talents and, unlike some other varieties (e.g., translation of official documents) it cannot be formalized or standardized. The explanation of the uniqueness and un­precedented nature of each literary translation piece lies in the following statement.

•► In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the source text rather than only facts like in other translation and inter­pretation varieties.

Below, to illustrate the statement, let us compare the following pas­sage from A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway with its translation into Ukrainian.

I stopped at a barber shop Я зайшов до перукарні й по-

and was shaved and went home голився, потім попростував до

to the hospital. My leg was as госпіталю. Моя нога вже так змі-

well as it would get for a long цніла, що кращого й бажати було

time. I had been up for examina- годі. За три дні перед тим я був

tion three days before. There на комісії. Мені залишалось усьо-

 

were still some treatments to take before my course at the Ospedale Maggiore was finished and I walked along the side street practicing not limping. An old man was cutting silhouettes under an arcade. I stopped to watch him. Two girls were pos­ing and he cut their silhouettes together, snipping very fast and looking at them, his head on one side. The girls were giggling. He showed me the silhouettes be­fore he pasted them on white paper and handed them to the girls.

«They're beautiful» he said. «How about you, Tenente?»

The girls went away looking at their silhouettes and laughing. They were nice-looking girls. One of them worked in the wine shop across from the hospital.

«All right,» I said.

«Take your cap off.»

«No. With it on.»

«It will not be so beautiful,» the old man said. «But,» he brightened, «it will be more military.»

He snipped away at the black paper, separated the two thicknesses and pasted the pro­files on a card and handed them to. 'How much?»

«That's all right». He waved his hand. «I just made them for

го кілька процедур до кінця ліку­вання в Головному госпіталі, і я йшов бічною вулицею, намагаю­чись не кульгати. Під склепінчас­тим під'їздом одного будинку якийсь старий вирізував паперові силуети. Я зупинився подиви­тись. Йому позували двоє дівчат, і він вирізував їхні силуети вкупі, швидко орудуючи ножицями й раз по раз нахиляючи голову вбік, щоб позирнути на дівчат. Дівчата хихотіли. Він показав силуети мені, а тоді вже наклеїв їх на білий папір і віддав дівча­там.

- Он які красуні,- сказав
він.- А ви не хочете, лейтенанте?

Дівчата пішли, роздивляю­чись свої силуети і сміючись. Обидві були гарненькі. Одна з них працювала у кав'ярні проти нашого госпіталю.

- Ну зробіть, - сказав я. Зніміть кашкета.

- Ні. В кашкеті.

- Буде не так гарно,- сказав
старий.- Зате,- усміхнувся він, -
дуже войовниче.

Він заходивсь обрізувати складений удвоє чорний папір, потім розняв готові профілі, на­клеїв їх на картку й подав мені.

- Скільки з мене?

- Пусте.- Він махнув рукою.-Я зробив їх вам за спасибі.

- Ну будь ласка.- Я витяг з

you.»

«Please,» I brought out some coppers. «For pleasure.»

«No. I did them for a pleas­ure. Give them to your girl.»

«Many thanks until we meet.»

«Until I see thee.»

I went on to the hospital. There were some letters, an offi­cial one, and some others. I was to have three weeks' convales­cent leave and then return to the front. I read it over carefully. Well, that was that. The conva­lescent leave started October fourth when my course was fin­ished. Three weeks was twenty-one days. That made October twenty-fifth. I told them I would not be in and went to the restau­rant a little way up the street from hospital for supper and read my letters and the Corriere della Sera at the table. There was a letter from my grandfather, containing family news, patriotic encouragement, a draft for two hundred dollars, and a few clip­pings; a dull letter from the priest at our mess; a letter from a man I knew who was flying with the French and had gotten in with a wild gang and was telling about it, and a note from Rinaldi asking me how long I was going

кишені кілька монет.- Зробіть мені приємність.

- Ні. Мені самому було при­ємно вирізати їх. Подаруйте сво­їй дівчині.

- Дуже вам дякую. Бувайте здорові.

- Ходи здоровий, синку.

Я повернувся до госпіталю. Там на мене чекало кілька листів, один з них - службовий. Мені надавали тритижневу відпустку на одужання, а потім я мав пове­рнутися на фронт. Я уважно пе­речитав листа. Еге ж, отак воно. Відпустка починалася з четверто­го жовтня, того самого дня, коли я закінчував курс лікування. Три тижні - це двадцять один день. Отже, двадцять п'ятого жовтня. Я сказав у госпіталі, що знов іду, й подався до ресторану на тій-таки вулиці, майже поруч госпі­талю, повечеряти і почитати лис­ти й «Corriere della Sera». Один лист був від мого діда: родинні новини, патріотичні гасла, чек на двісті доларів та кілька газетних вирізок; ще був нудний лист від нашого священика, лист від од­ного знайомого, який служив у французькому авіазагоні й весело проводив час у гурті відчайдуш­них гультяїв, про що й сповіщав мене; та ще коротка писулька від Рінальді. Він запитував, чи довго

to skulk in Milano and what was я ще думаю огинатися в Мілані й
all the news? He wanted me to що нового взагалі. Крім того,
bring him phonograph records просив привезти грамофонних
and enclosed a list. платівок і додав до листа їх спи-

сок.

The most striking examples, however, of this unique feature of liter­ary translation gives us poetry:

Заповіт Тарас Шевченко Як умру, то поховайте Мене на могилі, Серед степу широкого На Вкраїні милій, Щоб лани широкополі, І Дніпро, і кручі Було видно, було чути Як реве ревучий. Як понесе з України У синєє море Кров ворожу... отоді я І лани,і гори -Все покину і полину До самого бога Молитися... а до того Я не знаю бога. Поховайте та вставайте Кайдани порвіте І вражою злою кров'ю Волю окропіте. І мене в сім'ї великій В сім'ї вольній, новій, Не забудьте пом'янути Незлим тихим словом.

The Testament

by Taras Shevchenko

Dig my grave and raise my barrow

By the Dnieper-side

In Ukraina, my own land,

A fair land and wide.

I will lie and watch the cornfields,

Listen through the years

To the river voices roaring,

Roaring in my ears.

When I hear the call

Of the racing flood,

Loud with hated blood,

I will leave them all,

Fields and hills; and force my way

Right up to the Throne

Where God sits alone;

Clasp His feet and pray...

But till that day

What is God to me?

Bury me, be done with me, Rise and break your chain, Water your new liberty With blood for rain. Then, in the mighty family

Of all men that are free, May be sometimes, very softly You will speak of me?

Translated by E.L. Voynich London, 1911

It is easy to note that in the above translation example of the well-known Shevchenko's «Testament» individual information items (facts) are sometimes radically different or missing but the images for