Literature of the Germanic tribes

The Germanic tribes had a literature, but it was not written down. The stories and poems they made up were repeated and remem­bered. The Germanic tribes were fond of poetry. Their poems did not remain unchanged. Poets improved them in form and some­times they changed them to make them more interesting.

At that time there were professional poets too, who went from one place to another or had positions at the courts of kings. They sang songs in which they enlarged and magnified the deeds and events, which the songs were describing. They even sometimes added super natural qualities to a hero.

Most of those early poems were based on historic facts but historic elements were obscured by poetic and mythical addi­tions.

At first all the Germanic tribes were pagans, but then in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity by missionaries who came from the continent. So in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons became Christians and began composing reli­gious works.

Vocabulary

add [aed] v добавлять addition [s'dijbn] n дополнение adopt [g'dDpt] v принимать Christian ['knstjan] n христианин Christianity Lkristi'asnrti] n христианство compose [ksm'psuz] v сочинять, созда­вать convert [kan'v3:t] v обращать (в дру­гую веру) establish [is'taeblij] v основывать; созда­вать

magnify ['msegmfai] v восхвалять

missionary ['гш/пэп] п миссионер

monk [тлпк] п монах

mythical ['гш01кэ1] о фантастический, вымышленный

obscure [sb'skjus] v затемнять

position [pa'zifsn] n должность

quality ['kwoliti] n качество

supenatural [,sju:p3'naetfr3l] а сверхъ­естественный

 

Beowulf

Beowulf f beiawulf] is the most important poem of the Anglo-Saxon period. Though the Angles brought Beowulf with them to England, it has nothing to do with it. The epic is not even about the Anglo-Saxons, but about the Scandinavians when they lived on the continent in the 3rd or 4th cen­tury.

The story of Beowulf was written down in the 10th century by an unknown author, and the manuscripts is now kept in the British Museum. Its social interest lies in the vivid description of the life of that period, of the manners and customs of the people at that time, of the relations among the members of the society and in the portrayal of their towns, ships and feasts.

Aglo-Saxon warriors

The scene takes place among the Jutes, who lived on the Scandinavian peninsula at the time. Their neighboms were the Danes. The Jutes and the Danes were good sailors. Their ships sailed round the coast of the peninsula and to far-off lands.

The poem describes the warriors in battle and at peace, during their feasts and amusements. The main hero, Beowulf, is a strong, courageous, unselfish, proud and honest man. He defends his peo­ple against the unfriendly forces of nature and becomes the most beloved and kindest king on the earth as the theme of the poem is the straggle of good against evil. Beowulf fights not for his glory, he fights for the benefit of his people.

Although Beowulf was a Jute and his home is Jutland we say that The Song of Beowulf is an English poem. The social conditions it depicted are English. Both the form and the spirit of the poem are English. The poem is a true piece of English literature. The poem is composed with great skill. The author used many vivid

words and descriptive phrases. It is not only the subj ect of the poem that interests us but also its style. Beowulf is one of the early master­pieces of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English language. The poem is famous for its metaphors. For instance, the poet calls the sea "the swan's road", the body — "the bone-house", a warrior — "a hero­in-battle", etc.

The Story

The epic consists of two parts. The first part
tells us how Beowulf freed the Danes from two
monsters. Hrothgar [' hroGga:], King of the
Danes, in his old age had built near the sea a hall
called Heorot. He and his men gathered there
for feasts. One night as they were all sleeping a
frightful monster called Grendel broke into the
hall, killed thirty of the sleeping warriors, and
carried off their bodies to devour them in his lair
under the sea. The horrible half-human crea­
ture came night after night. Fear and death
reigned in the great hall. For twelve winters
Grendel's horrible raids continued. At last
the rumour of Grendel and his horrible deeds
crossed over the sea and reached Beowulf
who was a man of immense strength and Aglo-Saxon warrior

courage. When he heard the story, Beowulf decided to fight the monster and free the Danes. With fourteen companions he crossed the sea. This is how his voyage is described in the poem:

The foamy-necked floater fanned by the breeze

Likest a bird glided the waters

Till twenty and four hours hereafter

The twist-stemmed vessel had travelled such distance,

That the sailing-men saw the sloping embankments,

The sea-cliffs gleaming, precipitous mountains.

 

The Danes receive Beowulf and his companions with great hospitality, they make a feast in Heorot at which the queen pass­es the mead cup to the warriors with her own hand. But as night approaches the fear of Grendel is again upon the Danes. They all withdraw after the king has warned Beowulf of the frightful danger of sleeping in the hall. Beowulf stays in the hall with his warriors, saying proudly that since weapons cannot harm the monster, he will wrestle with him bare-handed. Here is the description of Gren­del's approach to Heorot:

Forth from the fens, from the misty moorlands, Grendel came gliding — God's wrath be bore — Came under clouds, until he saw clearly, Glittering with gold plates, the mead hall of men. Down fell the door, though fastened with fire bands; Open it sprang at the stroke of his paw. Swollen with rage burst in the bale-bringer; Flamed in his eyes a fierce light, likest fire.

Breaking into the hall, Grendel seizes one of the sleepers and devours him. Then he approaches Beowulf and stretches out a claw, only to find it clutched in a grip of steel. A sudden terror strikes the monster's heart. He roars, struggles, tries to free his arm; but Beowulf leaps to his feet and grapples his enemy bare­handed. After a desperate struggle Beowulf manages to tear off the monster's arm; Grendel escapes shrieking across the moor, and plunges into the sea to die.

Beowulf hangs the huge arm with its terrible claws over the king's seat; the Danes rejoice in Beowulf's victory. When night falls, a great feast is spread in Heorot. Beowulf receives rich presents, everybody is happy. The Danes once more go to sleep in the great hall. At midnight comes another monster, mother of Grendel, who wants to revenge her son. She seizes the king's best friend and councillor and rushes away with him over the fens. The old king is broken-hearted, but Beowulf tries to con­sole him:

Sorrow not, wise man. It is better for each

That his friend he avenge than that he mourn much.

Each of us shall the end await

Of worldly life: let he who may gain

Honour ere¹ death.

Then Beowulf prepares for a new fight. He plunges into the horrible place, while his companions wait for him on the shore. After a terrible fight at the bottom of the sea in the cave where the monsters live, Beowulf kills the she-monster with a magic sword which he finds in the cave. The hero returns to Heorot, where the Danes are already mourning for him, thinking him dead. Trium­phantly Beowulf returns to his native land.

In the last part of the poem there is another great fight. Beowulf is now an old man; he has reigned for fifty years, beloved by all his people. He has overcome every enemy but one, a fire dragon keep­ing watch over an enormous treasure hidden among the moun­tains. Again Beowulf goes to fight for his people. But he is old and his end is near. In a fierce battle the dragon is killed, but the fire has entered Beowulf's lungs.

He sends Wiglaf, the only of his warriors who had the courage to stand by him in his last fight, to the dragon's cave for the treasures. Beowulf dies, leaving the treasures to the people.

Vocabulary

companion [кэт'рэегуэп] п товарищ compose [кэт'рэш] v сочинять console [ksn'sgul] v утешать contents ['kontgnts] n содержание councillor ['kaunsita] n советник courageous [ka'reid^as] а смелый, от­важный creature ['kritjb] n создание; живое существо deed [di:d] n поступок; подвиг

avenge [a'vencfo] v мстить

bale [beil] n несчастье; горе

band [bsnd] n полоса

bare-handed ['beg'haendid] а голыми

руками (без оружия) bear [Ьеэ] v (bore; borne) нести benefit ['benifit] n польза, благо breeze [bri:z] n (легкий) ветерок claw [klo:] n лапа с когтями; коготь clutch [kktj] v зажать

ere [еэ] — поэтич. перед

depict [di 'pikt] v изображать, описы­вать

descriptive [dis 'knptivj о описатель­ный; наглядный

desperate ['despant] а отчаянный; ужасный

devour [di'vaua] v пожирать

dragon ['draegan] n дракон

embankment [im'bcerjkmsnt] n насыпь

enormous [I'noimas] о громадный, ог­ромный

epic ['epik] n эпическая поэма

evil [i:vl] n зло

fan [fsen] v поэт, обвевать, освежать (о ветерке)

fasten ['fa:sn] v скреплять; укреплять

fear [йэ] л страх

feast [first] n пир; празднество

fen [fen] л болото, топь

floater f'flauta] n плот, паром

foamy ['fbumi] о покрытый пеной

frightful ['fraitful] о страшный, ужас­ный

gleam [gli:m] v светиться; мерцать

glide [glaid] v двигаться крадучись

glitter ['gilts] v блестеть, сверкать

grapple ['graepl] v схватиться, бороться

grip [grip] n сжатие

harm [ha:m] v вредить, причинять вред

hospitality Lhnspi'taeliti] n гостеприим­ство

immense [i 'mens] а огромный, гро­мадный

lair [1еэ] п логовище; нора

leap [li:p] v (leapt, leaped) прыгнуть, вскочить

manuscript ['maenjusknpt] n рукопись

masterpiece ['ma:stapi:s] n шедевр

mead [mi:d] n мёд (напиток)

metaphor ['metafa] n метафора

misty ['misti] а туманный

monster ['rrmnsta] n чудовище

moorland ['mualand] местность, порос­шая вереском

mourn [mo:n] v оплакивать; скорбеть

overcome [^эшэ'клт] v (overcame; overcome) побороть, победить

paw [po:] n nana

peninsula [pi'ninsjula] n полуостров

plunge ['pUnay v нырять; бросаться

portrayal [po:'treial] n описание; изо­бражение

precipitous [pn' srpitas] n крутой; от­весный

rage [reidj;] n ярость, гнев

raid [reid] n набег

rejoice [n'djois] v радоваться

roar [ro:] v реветь, рычать

rumour ['ш:тэ] п слух, молва

scene [si:n] n место действия

shriek [fri:k] v пронзительно кричать, орать

sloping ['slaupirj] а покатый

spirit ['spirit] n дух

stroke [strauk] n удар

subject ['sAbdpkt] n тема

swollen ['swaulan] а опухший; разду­тый

sword [so:d] n меч

theme [9i:m] л тема

twist [twist] v крутить; виться twist-stemmed vessel судно с витым носом

vivid ['vivid] а яркий

warn [wo:n] v предупреждать

wrath [ro:9] n гнев, ярость

wrestle ['rest] v бороться

Questions and Tasks

1. When was poem Beowulf compiled?

2. What is the social interest of the poem?

3. What time does the poem tell us of?

4. Where is the scene of the poem set?

5. What does the poem tell us about the Jutes and the Danes?

6. What kind of man was the young knight of the Jutes Beowulf?

7. How is the poem composed?

8. What interests us besides the subject of the poem?

9. What is the poem famous for?
10. Retell the contents of Beowulf.

Anglo-Saxon Literature

(the 7th-11th centuries)

The culture of the early Britons changed greatly under the influ­ence of Christianity. Christianity penetrated into the British Isles in the 3rd century. It was made the Roman national faith in the year 306 when Constantine the Great became emperor over the whole of the Roman Empire. The religion was called the Catholic Church (the word "Church" means "religion", "catholic" means "univer­sal"). The Greek and Latin languages became the languages of the Church all over Europe.

At the end of the 4th century, after the fall of the Roman Em­pire, Britain was conquered by Germanic tribes. They were pa­gans. They persecuted the British Christians and put many of them to death or drove them away to Wales and Ireland.

At the end of the 6th century monks came from Rome to Britain again with the purpose to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. You know that in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity.

The part of England where the monks landed was Kent and the first church they built was in the town of Canterbury. Up to this day it is the English religious centre. Now that Roman civilization

poured into the country again, a second set of Latin words was introduced into the language of the Anglo-Saxons, because the religious books that the Roman monks had brought to England were all written in Latin and Greek. The monasteries where the art of reading and writing was practised became the centres of almost all the learning and education in the country. No wonder many poets and writers imitated those Latin books about the early Christians, and they also made up many stories of their own aboiit saints. Though the poets were English, they had to write in Latin. Notwithstanding this custom, a poet appeared in the 7th century by the name of Caedmon Г kaedman] who wrote in Anglo-Saxon. He was a shepherd, who start­ed singing verses and became a poet. Later monks took him to a monastery where he made up religious poetry. He wrote a poem — the Paraphrase ['pserafreiz]. It tells part of a Bible-story.

Another writer of this time was Bede [bi: d]. He described the coun­try and the people of his time in his work The History of the English Church. His work was a fusion of historical truth and fantastic stories. It was the first history of England and Bede is regarded as "the father of English history".

Another outstanding figure in En glish history and literature was Al­fred the Great (849-901), the king of Wessex. Though he was a soldier he fought no wars except those in order to defend his country. He built a fleet of ships to beat the Danes who had again come to invade Wessex. He also made up a code of law. He tried to develop the culture of his people. He founded the first English public school for young men. He translated the Church-history of Bede from Latin into a language the people could understand, and a portion of the Bible as well. To him the English owe the famous Anglo- ^The Venerable writing the life of

„ _,,.,,.,, St Cuthbert, the monk who spread

ЬахОП LhrOIUCle Which may be Christianity in the north of Britain

 

called the first history of England, the first prose in English litera­ture. It was continued for 250 years after the death of Alfred, till the reign of Henry II in 1154.

Questions and Tasks • 1. When did Christianity penetrate the British Isles? 2. When was it made the Roman national faith? 3. What was the religion called? 4. What languages became the languages of the Church all over Europe? 5. Why did monks come from Rome to Britain at the end of the 6th century? 6. When were the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity? 7. Where did the monks land? 8. Where was the first church built? 9. Why did the monasteries become the centres of all the learning and education?   10. What language did the English poets have to write? 11. What representatives of Anglo-Saxon literature can you name? 12. What poem did Caedmon write? 13. Say about Bede and his work. 14. Speak about the contribution of king Alfred to the development of English literature and culture.

Vocabulary

Catholic ['каевэИк] a католический Christian ['knstjsn] n христианин Christianity [.kristi'asniti] n христианство code [koud] n свод законов contribution [,kcntrf bju:Jbn] n вклад convert [kan'v3:t] v обращать (в дру­гую веру) emperor ['етрэгэ] п император empire ['empara] n империя faith [feiG] л вера fusion ['fjirjsn] п слияние imitate ['imiteit] v подражать, имити­ровать influence ['mfluans] n влияние introduce [,mtra'dju:s] v вводить monastery ['rrronsstsri] n монастырь

notwithstanding [,rrotwi9'staendm] prep

несмотря на owe [эи] v быть обязанным penetrate ['penitreit] v проникать persecute ['p3:sikju:t] v преследовать,

подвергать гонениям portion ['рэ:/эп] п часть pour [рэ:] v вливать regard [n'ga:d] v рассматривать saint [semt] n святой set [set] n ряд shepherd ['Jepad] n пастух universal [Ju:m'v3:sal] а всеобщий venerable ['vensrabl] о преподобный

(о святом)

THE DANISH CONQUEST AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS

When King Alfred died, fighting with the Danes soon began again. They occupied the north and east of England (Scotland and Ireland) and also sailed over the Channel and fought in France.

The land they conquered in the North of France was called Normandy and the people who lived there the Northmen. In the hundred years that were to follow they began to be called Normans.

The Danes who had occupied the North and East of Eng­land spoke a language only slightly different from the Anglo-Saxon dialects. The roots of the words were the same while the endings were different. Soon these languages merged with one another as they were spoken by all classes of society. The language of the Anglo-Saxons took many new words from Danish, particularly those regarding state affairs and ship­building. Such words as law, ship, fellow, husband, sky, ill are of Scandinavian origin. The Danes were in many ways more civilized than the English. The Danes were accustomed to chairs and benches while the English still sat on the floor. The Danes brought the game of chess to England which originally had come to them from the East.

Vocabulary

accustom [a'kAStam] v приучать Northman ['по:8тэп] п норманн

affair [эТеэ] п дело origin ['ппфп] п происхождение

civilized ['smlaizd] а цивилизованный originally [э'гк%пэ11] adv первоначально

comment ['tomant] v комментировать regarding [n'ga:dm] prep относительно,
conquest ['kurjkwast] л завоевание что касается

dialect ['daislekt] л диалект root [ru:t] n корень

merge [тз:сй v сливаться, соединяться slightly ['slaitli] adv слегка
Normandy ['rmnandi] n Нормандия

 

 

"

Questions and Tasks

1. When did fighting with the Danes begin again?

2. What part of the country did they occupy?

3. What name was given to the land in the north of France?

4. What language did the Northmen speak?

5. What do you know about the language the Danes spoke?

6. Comment on the development of the English language influenced by the Danish invasion.

The Norman Period

(the 12th-13th centuries) THE NORMAN CONQUEST

The Northmen or the Vikings who had settled in Northwestern France were called Normans. They had adopted the French civi­lization and language. They were good soldiers, administrators and lawyers.

In 1066 at the battle of Hastings [ 'heistrnz] the Norman Duke William defeated the Saxon King Harold. Again a new invasion took place. Within five years William the Conqueror was complete mas­ter of the whole of England. He divided the land of the conquered people among his lords. With the Norman conquest the feudal sys­tem was established in England. The English peasants were made to work for the Norman barons, they became their serfs and were cruelly oppressed.

William the Conqueror could not speak a word of English. He and his barons spoke Norman-French, not pure French, because the Normans were simply the same Danes with a French polish. The English language was neglected by the conquerors.

Norman-French became the official language of the state and

remained as such up to the middle of the 14th century. It was the language of the ruling class, of the court and the law, it was spo­ken by the Norman nobility.

But the common people of the native population kept speaking their mother tongue, Anglo-Saxon. While at the monasteries, at the centres of learning, the clergy used Latin for services and the literary activities.

In the Norman times three languages were spoken in the country. Until the 12th century it was mostly monks who were in­terested in books and learning. With the development of sciences, such as medicine and law, "Universities" appeared in Europe. Paris became the centre of higher education for English stu­dents.

In 1168 a group of professors from Paris founded the first uni­versity at Oxford. In 1209 the second university was formed at Cambridge. The students were taught Latin, theology, medicine, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

By and by the elements of French and Latin penetrated into Anglo-Saxon. They belonged to all spheres of life-words denot­ing relations, religious terms, words connected with government and military terms. War, pbace, guard, council, tower, wage, comfort, beef, tailor — all these words are of French origin. Sometimes the French words replaced the corresponding Eng­lish words, sometimes they remained side by side forming syno­nyms. A well-known example of such differentiation is present­ed by the names of animals, which were of Anglo-Saxon origin, and the name of the meat of these animals, which was French, such as ox-beef, calf-veal, sheep-mutton etc. Enriched by French and Latin borrowings, their language still remained basically Anglo-Saxon.

Finally it became the national language (we now call it Middle English). The formation of the national language was completed in the 14th century.

In 1349 English began to be studied in schools. In 1366 it was adopted in the courts of Law.

Vocabulary

nobility [nau'bihti] л знать oppress [a'pres] v угнетать peasant ['pezsnt] л крестьянин polish [poilj] л тонкость, изысканность pure [pjua] а правильный replace [n'pleis] v заменять rhetoric ['retsnk] n риторика serf [s3:f] л крепостной sphere fsfis] л сфера, круг state^1 [steit] л состояние state^2 [steit] n государство term [t3:m] л термин theology [9i'rjl3cfei] n богословие tonque [Un] л язык wage [weictj] n заработная плата

adopt [s'dnpt] v принимать basically ['beisiksli] adv в основном borrowing ['bDrsuin] л заимствование briefly [bri:fli] adv кратко clergy ['kl3:d^i] n духовенство complete [ksm'plil] о полный; v за­канчивать corresponding [^kDns'prmdin] о соот­ветствующий council ['kaunsil] л совет court [ko:t] л суд differentiation [^difsrenfi'eijsn] n раз

личение establish [is'taeblif] v основать neglect [m'glekt] v пренебрегать

Questions and Tasks

1. What was the name of the Northmen?

2. When did the battle of Hastings take place?

3. Who conquered England?

4. How many years was William the Conqueror complete master of the whole
of England?

5. Describe the conditions of peasants after the Norman conquest.

6. What language became the official language of the state?

7. Who spoke Anglo-Saxon?

8. What language did the clergy use?

9. How many languages were spoken in the Norman times?

 

10. Who was interested in books and learning until the 12th century?

11. What city became the centre of higher education for English students?

12. Where were the first and the second universities formed?

13. What subjects were the students taught there?

14. Comment on the state of the English language after the Norman Conquest.

15. When was the formation of the national language completed?

16. When did English begin to be studied in schools?

17. When was it adopted in the courts of Law?

18. Relate briefly the story of the Normans and the Norman Conquest.

 

LITERATURE IN THE NORMAN TIMES

The Normans brought to England romances — love stories and lyrical poems about their brave knights and their ladies.

The first English romances were translations from French. But later on in the 12th century, there appeared romances of Arthur, a legendary king of Britain. In the 15th century Thomas Malory col­lected and published them under the title Sir Thomas Malory's Book of King Arthur and of his Noble Knights of the Round Table. The knights gathered in King Arthur's city of Camelot f kaemiltrt]. Their meetings were held at a round table, hence the title of the book. All the knights were brave and gallant in their struggle against rob­bers, bad kings and monsters. King Arthur was the wisest and most honest of them all.

The townsfolk expressed their thoughts in fabliaus [ 'fasbliauz] (funny stories about townsfolk) and fables. Fables were short sto­ries with animals for characters and contained a moral.

Anglo-Saxon was spoken by the common people from the 5th till the 14th century. The songs and ballads about harvest, mow­ing, spinning and weaving were created by the country-folk, and were learnt by heart, recited and sung accompanied by musical instruments and dancing."

 

4. Who collected and published the romances?

5. Under what title did Thomas Malory collect the books?

6. What was the book about?

7. Where did the townsfolk express their thoughts?

8. What was created by the country-folk?

9. Say how the Norman Conquest affected English literature.

 

Vocabulary

accompany [э'клтрэга] ^сопровождать legendary ['leapndgn] а легендарный

contain [кэп Чет] v содержать mowing ['тэшп] п косьба

fable f'feibl] n басня recite [rfsait] v декламировать

fabliau [fae'blisu] n фабльо romance [re'maens] n роман

gallant ['gsebnt] а храбрый spinning ['spmm] n прядение

hence [hens] adv отсюда weaving ['wi:virj] n тканье

knight [nait] л рыцарь wise [waiz] а мудрый

Questions and Tasks

1. What stories did the Normans bring to England?

2. What were the first English romances?

3. What romances appeared in the 12th century?

*

English Literature in the 14th Century

PRE-RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND

The Norman kings made London their residence. The London dialect was the central dialect, and it was understood throughout the country. It was the London dialect from which the national language developed.

In the 14th century the English bourgeoisie traded with Flan­ders (now Belgium). The English sold wool to Flanders and the latter produced the finest cloth. England wanted to become the centre of the world market. Flemish weavers were invited to Eng­land to teach the English their trade. But feudalism was a serious obstacle to the development of the country. In the first half of the 14th century France threatened the free towns of Flanders, wish­ing to seize them. England was afraid of losing its wool market.

A collision between France and England was inevitable. King Edward III made war with France in 1337. This war is now called the Hundred Years' War because it lasted over a hundred years. At first England was successful in the war. The English fleet defeated the French fleet in the Channel. Then the English also won battles on

land. B\it the ruin of France and the famine brought about a terrible disease called the "pestilence". It was brought over to England from France. The English soldiers called it the "Black Death". By the year 1348 one-third of England's population had perished. The peasants who had survived were forced to till the land of their lords.

As years went on, the French united against their enemy. As the king needed money for the war, Parliament voted for extra taxes. The increasing feudal oppression, cruel laws and the growth of taxes aroused people's indignation and revolts broke out all over the country. In 1381 there was a great uprising with Wat Tyler at the head. The rebels set fire to the houses, burnt valuable things, killed the king's judges and officials. They demanded the aboli­tion of serfdom and taxes, higher wages and guarantees against feudal oppression. But the rebellion was suppressed, and Wat Tyler was murdered.

Nothing made the people so angry as the rich foreign bishops of the Catholic Church who did not think about the sufferings of the people. The protest against the Catholic Church and the growth of national feeling during the first years of the Great War found an echo in literature. There appeared poor priests who wandered from one village to another and talked to the people. They protested against the rich bishops and also against all churchmen who were ignorant men and did not want to teach the people anything.

Such poor priests were the poet William Langland and John⁴ Wycliffe. They urged to fight for their rights. But the greatest writer of the 14th century was Geoffrey Chaucer, who was the writer of the new class, the bourgeoisie. He was the first to clear the way for realism.

Vocabulary

ignorant ['ignsrent] а невежественный indignation [^mdig'neifan] n возмуще­ние, негодование inevitable [m'evitabl] а неизбежный latter ['tets] а последний obstacle ['obstakl] л препятствие official [s'ftjbl] n чиновник; служащий oppression [э'рге/эп] л угнетение; гнет outcome ['autksm] л последствие

abolition Laebs'lifgn] л отмена bishop ['bijbp] л епископ collision [кэ'11зэп] л столкновение echo ['екэи] л отражение famine ['fsemm] л голод Flanders ['flaindaz] л Фландрия Flemish ['flemij] а фламандский force [fo:s] v заставлять guarantee Lgasran'ti:] v гарантировать

 

perish ['penfl v погибать pestilence ['pestibns] n чума rebellion [n'beljsn] n восстание revolt [ri'vault] n восстание serfdom ['s3:fdsm] n крепостное право suppress [sa'pres] v подавлять survive [sg'vaiv] v выжить, уцелеть

tax [tasks] n налог threaten ['Gretn] v угрожать throughout [9ru:'aut] adv повсюду till [til] v обрабатывать (землю), пахать urge [з:с&] v побуждать, заставлять wander ['wands] v бродить weaver ['wirval n ткач

Questions and Tasks

1. Describe the political situation of England in the 14th century.

2. How did people react to growing feudal oppression?

3. Talk about Wat Tyler's Rebellion and its outcome.

4. What was the result of the protest against the Catholic Church?

5. What did poor priests protest against?

6. What do you know about the poets William Langland and John Wycliffe?

7. Who was the greatest writer of the 14th century?

Geoffrey Chaucer

(1340-1400)

Geoffrey Chaucer

The most vivid description of the 14th century England was given by Geoffrey Chaucer [ 'd3efn 'tfo:ss]. He was the first truly great writer in Eng­lish literature and is called the "father of English poetry". Chaucer was born in London, into the family of a wine merchant. His father had connections with the court and hoped for a courti­er's career for his son. At seventeen Ge­offrey became page to a lady at the court of Edward III. At twenty, Chau­cer was in France, serving as a squire. During 1373 and the next few years Chaucer travelled much and lived a busy life. He went to France, made three journeys to Italy. Italian literature opened to Chaucer a new world of art. Chaucer's earli­est poems were written in imitation of the French romances.

The second period of Chaucer's literary work was that of the Ital­ian influence. To this period belong the following poems: The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls, a poem satirizing Parliament, The Legend of Good Women and others.

When Chaucer came back to England, he received the post of Controller of the Customs in the port of London. Chaucer held this position for ten years. He devoted his free time to hard study and writing. Later Chaucer was appointed "Knight for the Shire of Kent", which meant that he sat in Parliament as a representa­tive for Kent.

He often had to go on business to Kent and there he observed the pilgrimages to Canterbury.

The third period of Chaucer's creative work begins in the year 1384, when he started writing his masterpiece, The Can­terbury Tales.

Chaucer died in 1400 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer was the last English writer of the Middle Ages and the first of the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

post [psust] n поет, должность satirize ['saetaraiz] v высмеивать shire [fara] n графство source [so:s] n источник vivid ['vivid] о яркий

court [ko:t] n двор короля courtier ['кэ:ф] п придворный esquire [is'kwaia] n оруженосец pilgrimage ['pilgnmKfe] n паломни чество

Questions and Tasks

1. Give the main facts of Chaucer's life.

2. What were the sources of Chaucer's creative work?

3. Speak about the three periods of Chaucer's creative work.

4. What is his masterpiece?

5. When did Chaucer die?

6. Where was he buried?

 

The Canterbury Tales

This is the greatest work of Chaucer in which his realism, iro­ny and freedom of views reached such a high level that it had no equal in all the English literature up to the 16th century. That's why Chaucer was called "the founder of realism". It is for the Canterbury Tales that Chaucer's name is best remembered. The book is an unfinished collection of stories in verse told by the pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. Each pilgrim was to tell four stories. Chaucer managed to write only twenty-four instead of the proposed one hundred and twenty-four stories.

All his characters are typical representatives of their classes. When assembled, they form one people, the English people. Chaucer kept the whole poem alive and full of humour not only by the tales themselves but also by the talk, comments and the opinions of the pilgrims.

The prologue is the most interesting part of the work. It acquaints the reader with medieval society. The pilgrims are persons of dif­ferent social ranks and occupations. Chaucer has portrayed them with great skill at once as types and as individuals true to their own age. There is a knight, a yeoman (a man who owned land; a farmer), a nun, a monk, a priest, a"merchant, a clerk, a sailor, Chaucer himself and others, thirty-one pilgrims in all. The knight is brave, simple and modest. He is Chaucer's ideal of a soldier. The nun weeps seeing a mouse caught in a trap but turns her head from a beggar in his "ugly rags". The fat monk prefers hunting and good dinners to prayers. The merchant's wife is merry and strong. She has red cheeks and red stockings on her fat legs. The clerk is a poor philosopher who spends all his money on books.

Each of the travellers tells a different kind of story showing his own views and character. Some are comical, gay, witty or roman­tic, others are serious and even tragic.

In Chaucer's age the English language was still divided by dia­lects. Chaucer wrote in the London dialect, the most popular one at that time. With his poetry the London dialect became the Eng­lish literary language. Chaucer does not teach his readers what is good or bad by moralizing; he was not a preacher. He merely paid

 

joi

*mi

 

Pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury

attention to the people around him; he drew his characters "ac­cording to profession and degree", so they instantly became typi­cal of their class.

Vocabulary

merely ['miali] adv только, просто moralize ['rrrorelaiz] v поучать nun [плп] п монахиня pilgrim ['pilgrim] n паломник prayer ['preis] n молитва preacher ['pritfa] л проповедник prologue fprsulog] n пролог rank [rserjk] n звание; ранг trap [trsep] n капкан weep [wi:p] v (wept) плакать yeoman Пэитэп] п иомен, фермер

appoint [a'pomt] v назначать assemble [o'sembl] v собираться career [кэ'пэ] п карьера comment [ 'knmsnt] n комментарий,

толкование degree [di'gri:] n положение, ранг equal ['i:kwal] а равный framework ['freimw3:k] n структура instantly ['mstanth] adv немедленно level ['levl] n уровень medieval [^medi'i^sl] а средневековый

 

Questions and Tasks

1. Thanks to what work is Chaucer's name best remembered?

2. Describe the framework of the Canterbury Tales.

3. Speak on the characters'of the Canterbury Tales as typical representatives of their time.

4. Speak on the subject and form of the tales.

5. Comment on the state of the English language at the beginning of the 14th century and Chaucer's contribution to the development of the English language.

6. Speak on Chaucer's place in English literature.

English Literature in the 15th Century

i THE WARS OF THE ROSES

The death of Chaucer was a great blow to English poetry. It took two centuries to produce a poet equal to him. The Hundred Years' War ended, but another misfortune befell the country: a feudal war broke out between the descendants of Edward III in the 15th century.

When the English were completely driven out of France by 1453, the Yorkists took up arms against the Lancastrians, and in 1455 the Wars of the Roses began.

It was a feudal war between the big barons of the House of Lancas­ter, wishing to continue the war with France and to seize the lands of other people thus increasing their land possessions and the lesser barons and merchants of the House of York, who wished to give up fighting in France as it was too expensive for them (The Yorkists had a white rose in their coat of arms, hence the name of the war).

When the Wars of the Roses ended in 1485 Henry VII was pro­claimed King of England. The reign of the Tudors was the begin­ning of an absolute monarchy in England, and at the same time it helped to do away with feudal fighting once and for all.

Vocabulary

befall [bf foil] vjbefell; befallen) случаться lesser ['lesa] а мелкий

coat of arms ['ksutav'aimz] n герб proclaim [pra'kleim] v объявлять; про-
descendant [di'sendsnt] n потомок возглашать

Lancastrian [laen'kEestnan] n сторон- Yorkist ['p:kist] n сторонник Йоркской
ник Ланкастерской династии династии

Questions and Tasks

1. What misfortune befell England in the 15th century?

2. When did the Wars of the Roses begin?

3. Talk about the reasons for the war.

4. When did the war end?

5. Who was proclaimed King of England?

6. What was the reign of the Tudors for England?

Folk-Songs and Ballads

Though there was hardly any written literature in England in the 15th century, folk poetry flourished in England and Scot­land. Folk-songs were heard everywhere. Songs were made up for every occasion. There were harvest songs, mowing songs, spin­ning and weaving songs, etc.

The best of folk poetry were the ballads. A ballad is a short narrative in verse with the refrain following each stanza. The re­frain was always one and the same. Ballads were often accompa­nied by musical instruments and dancing. They became the most popular form of amusement. Some ballads could be performed by several people because they consisted of dialogues.

There were various kinds of ballads: historical, legendary, fan­tastical, lyrical and humorous. The ballads passed from genera­tion to generation through the centuries — that's why there are several versions of the same ballads. So about 305 ballads have more than a thousand versions.

The most popular ballads were those about Robin Hood.

The art of printing did not stop the development of folk-songs and ballads. They continued to appear till the 18th century when

they were collected and printed. The common people of Eng­land expressed their feelings in popular ballads.

Vocabulary

flourish ['АлпГ] v процветать refrain [n'frem] n припев

generation [^djem'reijbn] n поколение stanza ['staenza] n строфа

narrative ['naeretrv] n повествование version ['v3:Jsn] п вариант
occasion [э'кегзэп] п случай

Questions and Tasks

1. What poetry flourished in England in the 15th century?

2. What kind of songs were there?

3. What was the best of folk poetry?

4. What is a ballad?

5. Why could some ballads be performed by several people?

6. What kinds of ballads were there?

7. Explain why there are several versions of the same ballads.

8. What were the most popular ballads?

The Robin Hood Ballads

England's favourite hero, Robin Hood, is a partly legendary, partly historical character. The old ballads about the famous out­law say that he lived in about the second half of the 12th century, in the times of King Henry II and his son Richard the Lion-Heart. Society in those days was mainly divided into lords and peasants. Since the battle of Hastings (1066) the Saxons had been op­pressed by the Normans. In those days many of the big castles belonged to robber-barons who ill-treated the people, stole chil­dren, took away the cattle. If the country-folk resisted, they were either killed by the barons or driven away, and their homes were destroyed. They had no choice but to go out in bands and hide in the woods; then they were declared "outlaws" (outside the pro­tection of the law).

The forest abounded in game of all kinds. The Saxons were good hunters and skilled archers. But in the reign of Henry II the

numerous herds of deer were proclaimed "the king's deer" and the forests "the king's forests". Hunting was prohibited. A poor man was cruelly punished for killing one of those royal animals. This was the England of Robin Hood about whom there are some fifty or more ballads.

Robin Hood

Robin Hood is a brave outlaw. In Sherwood Forest near Not­tingham there was a large band of outlaws led by Robin Hood. He came from a family of Saxon land owners, whose land had been seized by a Norman baron. Robin Hood took with him all his family and went to the forest. The ballads of Robin Hood tell us of his

adventures in the forest as an outlaw. Many Saxons joined him there. They were called "the merry men of Robin Hood".

Robin Hood was strong, brave and clever. He was much cle­verer, wittier and nobler than any nobleman. He was the first in all competitions. Robin Hood was portrayed as a tireless enemy of the Norman oppressors, a favourite of the country folk, a real cham­pion of the poor. He was generous and tender-hearted and he was always ready to respond to anybody's call for help. His worst ene­mies were the Sheriff of Nottingham, the bishop and greedy monks. He always escaped any trouble and took revenge on his enemies. Robin Hood was a man of a merry joke and kind heart.

The ballads tell us of Robin Hood's friends — of Little John who was ironically called "little" for being very tall; of thejolly fat Friar Tuck who skilfully used his stick in the battle. Their hatred for the cruel oppressors united them and they led a merry and free life in Sherwood Forest.

The ballads of Robin Hood gained great popularity in the sec­ond half of the 14th century when the peasants struggled against their masters and oppressors. The ballads played an important role in the development of English poetry up to the 20th century. They became so popular that the names of their authors were forgotten.

Vocabulary

mainly ['memli] adv главным образом outlaw ['autlo:] n изгнанник proclaim [pre'kleim] v объявлять; про­возглашать prohibit [prs'hibit] v запрещать resist [n'zist] v сопротивляться respond [ns'ptmd] v отозваться revenge [rf vend^] n месть take revenge отомстить tender-hearted ['tendg'haitid] а доб­рый; отзывчивый

abound [a'baund] v изобиловать archer ['aitja] n стрелок из лука avoid [s'void] v избегать band [baend] n отряд, группа crude [kra:d] а грубый gain [gem] v добиться game [geim] n дичь generous ['gemras] а великодушный herd [h.3:d] n стадо ill-treat ['il'tiit] v дурно, жестоко об­ращаться jolly ['<%d!i] а веселый

 

Questions and Tasks

1. What did the old ballads say about the time Robin Hood lived?

2. Describe the conditions of the Saxons after the Norman Conquest.

3. What family did Robin Hood come from?

4. What kind of man was he?

5. Who were his worst enemies?

6. Who were his friends?

7. How was Robin Hood portrayed in the ballads?

8. When did the ballads of Robin Hood gain great popularity?

! English Literature

I in the 16th Century

Henry VII was proclaimed King of England after the Wars of the Roses ended. Most of the great earls had killed one another in these wars and Henry VII was able to seize their lands without difficulty and give them to those who had helped him to fight for the Crown.

Thousands of small landowners appeared in England. They called themselves "squires". The squires let part of their estates to farmers who paid rent for the use of this land. The farmers, in their turn, hired labourers to till the soil and tend the sheep. The peasants in the villages had land and pastures in common.

By the reign of Henry VIII (son of Henry VII) trade had expand­ed. Trading companies sprang up and ships were built fitted to cross the ocean.

The English bourgeoisie strove for independence from other countries. The independence of a country is associated with the struggle for freedom. The Catholic Church was the chief obsta­cle and England rebelled against the Pope of Rome. Henry VIII made himself head of the English Church and took away monas­tic wealth (the lands and money that belonged to the monaster­ies), giving it to those of the bourgeoisie who sat in Parliament.

Questions and Tasks 1. Who was proclaimed King of England after the Wars of the Roses? 2. Describe the situation in England after the war. 3. What did the English bourgeoisie strive for? 4. What was the chief obstacle? 5. Did the Church in England become part of the state? 6. What was it called? 7. What country was England's rival? 8. When did England inflict a defeat on the Spanish Invincible Armada? 9. Speak about the situation in England after the war with Spain.

THE RENAISSANCE

The word "renaissance" [гэ 'neisans] means "rebirth" in French and was used to denote a phase in the cultural development of Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. The Middle Ages were followed by a more progressive period due to numerous events. The bourgeoisie appeared as a new class. Italy was the first bourgeois country in Europe in the 14th century.

The Pope resisted England's strug­gle for independence, but the Church in England became part of the state. It was called the Angli­can Church.

Elizabeth I

All the progressive elements now gathered around Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603). Even Parliament helped to establish an absolute monarchy in order to concentrate all its forces in defence of the coun­try's economic interests against Spain, as Spain and England were rivals. Soon war between Spain and England broke out. Though the Spanish fleet was called the "Invin­cible Armada" ("invincible" means "unconquerable"), their ships were not built for sea battles, while the English vessels were capable of fighting under sail. The Armada was thoroughly beaten and dreadful storm overtook tke fleet and destroyed almost all ships.

But in England all was joy and happiness. This was in 1588. Victory over the most dangerous political rival consolidated Great Britain's might on the seas and in world trade. Numerous English ships under admirals Drake, Hawkings and others sailed the seas, visited America and other countries, bringing from them great fortunes that enriched and strengthened the Crown.

At the same time 16th century witnessed great contradic­tions between the wealth of the ruling class and the poverty of the people.

New social and economic conditions brought about great changes in the development of science and art. Together with the development of bourgeois relationship and formation of the Eng­lish national state this period is marked by a flourishing of national culture known in history as the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

associate [s'sgufieit] v ассоциировать

chief [tjl:f] о главный

common ['кглпэп] п общинная земля

consolidate [ksn'sulideit] v укреплять

contradiction [^knntra'dikfsn] n проти­воречие.

crown [kraun] n монарх

earl [з:1] п граф

estate [is'teit] n поместье

expand [iks'psend] v развиваться, рас­ширяться

fit [fit] v соответствовать

hire [haia] v нанимать

independence [,mdi'pendsns] n неза­висимость

inflict [m'flikt] у наносить

invincible [m'vmsabl] а непобедимый

might [mait] n мощь

monastic [mg'nasstik] а монастырский

obstacle ['nbstskl] n препятствие

pope [рэир] п папа римский

rebel [n'bel] v восставать

renaissance [ra'neissns] n эпоха Воз­рождения

rent [rent] л арендная плата

rival ['rarvsl] n соперник

spring [spnrj] v (sprang; sprung) возникать

strive [strarv] v (strove; striven) бороться

strove [straw] v past от strive

tend [tend] v пасти

thoroughly ['влгек] adv совершенно

witness [ 'witngs] v быть свидетелем; видеть

 

Columbus [ka'lAmbas] discovered America. Vasco da Gama [ 'vseskau da 'grxma] reached the coast of India making his sea voyage. Magellan [mag'ebn] went round the earth. The world appeared in a new light.

The Copemican [кэи'рз:шкэп] system of astronomy shattered the power of the Catholic Church, and the Protestant Church was set up. Printing was invented in Germany in the 15th centu­ry. Schools and universities were established in many Europe­an countries. Great men appeared in art, science and litera­ture.

In art and literature the time between the 14th and 17th cen­turies was called the Renaissance. It was the rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman art and literature. Ancient culture attracted new writers and artists because it was full of joy of life and glori­fied the beauty of man.

The writers and learned men of the Renaissance turned against feudalism and roused in men a wish to know more about the true nature of things in the world. They were called humanists. Man was placed in the centre of life. He was no longer an evil being. He had a right to live, enjoy himself and be happy on earth.

The humanists were greatly interested in the sciences, es­pecially in natural scierrce, based on experiment and investi­gation.

These new ideas first appeared in Italy, then in France and Germany, and shortly afterwards in England and Spain.

The Italian painters and sculptors Raphael [ 'rasfeial], Leonardo da Vinci [Ira'ncudauda'vmtjl:] and Michelangelo ['maikal 'aendjdau] glorified the beauty of man. The Italian poets Dante [ 'daenti], Petrarch [рэ 'tra;k| and the Italian writer Boccaccio [bt> 'kaljiau], the French writer Rabelias [ 'raebalei], the Spanish writer Cervan­tes [s3:'vaentiz], and the English writer Thomas More and the poet Shakespeare helped people to fight for freedom and better fu­ture.

The renaissance was the greatest progressive revolution that mankind had so far experienced. It was a time which called for giants and produced giants — giants in power, thought, passion, character, in universality and learning. There was hardly any

man of importance who had not travelled extensively, who did not speak four or five languages.

Indeed, Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, architect, mathematician and engineer. Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter and poet. Machiavelli [ 'тжкю' veil] was a statesman, poet and histo­rian.

The wave of progress reached England in the 16th century. Many learned men from other countries, for, instance the Ger­man painter Holbein, and some Italian and French musicians, went to England. In literature England had her own men. One of them was the humanist Thomas More, the first English humanist of the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

learned ['b:nid] о ученый phase [feiz] n период rouse [rauz] v возбуждать shatter ['Jaets] v подрывать statesman ['steitsman] n государствен­ный деятель universality [Ju:niV3:'sashti] n универ­сальность

denote [di'nsut] v обозначать experience [iks 'pionans] v испыты­вать, переживать extensively [iks'tensrvh] adv повсюду giant [tfjaignt] n гигант glorify ['gto:nfai] v прославлять investigation [mvesti'geijbn] n рассле­дование

Questions and Tasks

1. What does the word "renaissance" mean?

2. Talk about the great events that gave rise to the movement.

3. What were the different views regarding man in the Middle Ages and during the epoch of the Renaissance?

4. Who were the humanists?

5. In what country did the Renaissance start first?

6. What do you know about the Renaissance in Italy?

7. When did the wave of progress reach England?

 

Thomas More

(1478-1535)

Sir Thomas More [ 'tomas mo:] was born in London and educated at Oxford. He was the first English humanist of the Renaissance. He could write Latin very well. He be­gan life as a lawyer. He was an ac­tive-minded man and kept a keen eye¹ on the events of his time. Soon he became the first great writer on social and political subjects in Eng­lish. The English writings of Thomas More include: discussions on politi­cal subjects, biographies, poetry.

Thomas More was a Catholic, but fought against the Pope and the king's absolute power. The priests hated him because of his poetry and discussions on political subjects. Thomas More refused to obey the king as the head of the English Church, therefore he was thrown into the Tower of London and beheaded there as a traitor.

The work by which Themas More is best remembered today is Utopia [ju: Чэирю] which was written in Latin in the year 1516. It has been translated into all European languages.

Utopia (which in Greek means "nowhere") is the name of a non-existent island. This work is divided into two books.

In the first, the author gives a profound and truthful picture of the people's sufferings and points out the social evils existing in Eng­land at that time. In the second book Thomas More presents his ideal of what future society should be like. It is an ideal republic. Its government is elected. Everybody works. All schooling is free. Man must be healthy and wise, but not rich. Utopia describes a perfect social system built on communist principles. The word "utopia" has become a byword and is used in modern En